Periodic Reporting for period 1 - GRADIENTS (Gradients of Europeanness in Colonial Africa: the case of the Portuguese in the Congo Free State (c. 1885-1908))
Reporting period: 2022-02-01 to 2025-01-31
After the Berlin West Africa Conference of 1884–1885 recognised the International Association of the Congo’s sovereignty over the Congo Basin, Leopold II, King of the Belgians, became the head of the newly established Congo Free State. In the words of Belgian Prime Minister Auguste Beernaert, this supposedly independent and sovereign territory was a "sort of international colony". Although Belgian soldiers and successive loans from the Belgian state were made available to the Congo in the following decades, the territory only formally became a Belgian colony in 1908.
In accordance with the principles of the General Act of the Berlin Conference, the Congo Free State granted free and unfettered access to any individual, trading company, or religious mission wishing to settle in the colony, regardless of national origin. Men of any nationality could pursue a career in the colonial administration, provided they knew French and passed the required health examinations in Brussels. Many non-Belgian citizens joined Leopold II’s colonial forces in the Congo. Against the backdrop of the increasing imperial rivalries that characterised the Scramble for Africa, the Congo Free State became a lively cosmopolitan hub.
The diversity of Europeans in the Congo was neither new nor unique to the late nineteenth century. Since the sixteenth century, Portuguese, British, French, and Dutch merchants had established permanent trading posts along Africa’s western coast. Cross-cultural exchanges followed, and a society marked by cultural and biological métissage emerged. These communities included Europeans of various nationalities, Africans, and people of mixed descent – including ‘Africanised’ Europeans and ‘Europeanised’ Africans – resulting in complex individual and collective identifications, though often structured by racial hierarchies. However, self-identification as European did not always depend on skin colour.
What was new after the creation of the Congo Free State was the significant increase in the number of Europeans in the territory and the diversification of their origins. Improved prophylactics reduced Europeans’ high mortality rates in Africa, while opportunities such as free trade, open navigation, and a boom in the rubber trade attracted new migrants. Also novel was the creation of a centralised state with an administrative apparatus designed to establish authority over this vast territory. The effort to ensure effective occupation went hand in hand with strategies to circumvent the Berlin Act and limit the influence of rival colonial powers in Leopold II’s colony.
By the late nineteenth century, scientific theories of race had reinforced existing ideas of white racial superiority and natural inequality based on phenotypic features, shaping contemporary attitudes towards human diversity. How did these transformations affect processes of identity formation as 'European' in the Congo Free State during the age of high imperialism, and in what ways did they differ from earlier local configurations? Answering this question contributes to a deeper understanding of the continuities and discontinuities of imperialism in Africa as a collective European project, and of the role evolving local social structures and power relations played in shaping it.
To explore this, GRADIENTS took the case of the Portuguese in the Congo Free State as a point of departure, bearing in mind that the Portuguese had long been perceived as ‘not quite white’ and therefore incapable of self-government, let alone of governing ‘inferior races’. Scientific racialism and the typologisation of European races in the late nineteenth century reinforced these longstanding national stereotypes. GRADIENTS concluded that the Portuguese either embraced or rejected their ‘in-between’ racial status or identities – sometimes both, depending on whom they were interacting with, and when and where those interactions occurred – for private, commercial, and political purposes. Their aim was to maximise their advantages while participating alongside other Europeans in the exploitation of the Congo Free State and its population.
In accordance with the principles of the General Act of the Berlin Conference, the Congo Free State granted free and unfettered access to any individual, trading company, or religious mission wishing to settle in the colony, regardless of national origin. Men of any nationality could pursue a career in the colonial administration, provided they knew French and passed the required health examinations in Brussels. Many non-Belgian citizens joined Leopold II’s colonial forces in the Congo. Against the backdrop of the increasing imperial rivalries that characterised the Scramble for Africa, the Congo Free State became a lively cosmopolitan hub.
The diversity of Europeans in the Congo was neither new nor unique to the late nineteenth century. Since the sixteenth century, Portuguese, British, French, and Dutch merchants had established permanent trading posts along Africa’s western coast. Cross-cultural exchanges followed, and a society marked by cultural and biological métissage emerged. These communities included Europeans of various nationalities, Africans, and people of mixed descent – including ‘Africanised’ Europeans and ‘Europeanised’ Africans – resulting in complex individual and collective identifications, though often structured by racial hierarchies. However, self-identification as European did not always depend on skin colour.
What was new after the creation of the Congo Free State was the significant increase in the number of Europeans in the territory and the diversification of their origins. Improved prophylactics reduced Europeans’ high mortality rates in Africa, while opportunities such as free trade, open navigation, and a boom in the rubber trade attracted new migrants. Also novel was the creation of a centralised state with an administrative apparatus designed to establish authority over this vast territory. The effort to ensure effective occupation went hand in hand with strategies to circumvent the Berlin Act and limit the influence of rival colonial powers in Leopold II’s colony.
By the late nineteenth century, scientific theories of race had reinforced existing ideas of white racial superiority and natural inequality based on phenotypic features, shaping contemporary attitudes towards human diversity. How did these transformations affect processes of identity formation as 'European' in the Congo Free State during the age of high imperialism, and in what ways did they differ from earlier local configurations? Answering this question contributes to a deeper understanding of the continuities and discontinuities of imperialism in Africa as a collective European project, and of the role evolving local social structures and power relations played in shaping it.
To explore this, GRADIENTS took the case of the Portuguese in the Congo Free State as a point of departure, bearing in mind that the Portuguese had long been perceived as ‘not quite white’ and therefore incapable of self-government, let alone of governing ‘inferior races’. Scientific racialism and the typologisation of European races in the late nineteenth century reinforced these longstanding national stereotypes. GRADIENTS concluded that the Portuguese either embraced or rejected their ‘in-between’ racial status or identities – sometimes both, depending on whom they were interacting with, and when and where those interactions occurred – for private, commercial, and political purposes. Their aim was to maximise their advantages while participating alongside other Europeans in the exploitation of the Congo Free State and its population.
Extensive research for GRADIENTS was conducted using both digital and physical historical archives and repositories located in Belgium, Portugal, Great Britain, the Netherlands, and the United States of America. Through the case study of the Portuguese in the Congo Free State, the project yielded exciting new insights into the role of local colonial societies in the global history of European colonialism and in the transimperial circulation of individuals and ideas.
The researcher also successfully achieved the project’s primary aims with regard to skill acquisition. In particular, the training in teaching proved essential in enhancing the researcher’s professional potential and future career prospects. It provided an opportunity to combine pedagogical training through short courses offered by Leiden University to new staff and a mentorship programme led by a senior instructor with hands-on teaching practice.
Key outcomes of the project include: an international workshop held on the topic of constructions of European identities in Leiden; two double panels in major academic conferences; an edited special issue based on a double panel in a major conference; 4 academic articles (one accepted by the end of the fellowship and three in progress); participation at 4 academic conferences or workshops; and 2 outreach activities involving children and teenagers.
The researcher also successfully achieved the project’s primary aims with regard to skill acquisition. In particular, the training in teaching proved essential in enhancing the researcher’s professional potential and future career prospects. It provided an opportunity to combine pedagogical training through short courses offered by Leiden University to new staff and a mentorship programme led by a senior instructor with hands-on teaching practice.
Key outcomes of the project include: an international workshop held on the topic of constructions of European identities in Leiden; two double panels in major academic conferences; an edited special issue based on a double panel in a major conference; 4 academic articles (one accepted by the end of the fellowship and three in progress); participation at 4 academic conferences or workshops; and 2 outreach activities involving children and teenagers.
GRADIENTS offers important contributions to the state of the art in the fields of global history of European colonialism and transimperial history. It brings nuance to prevailing discussions of colonial European identities, which often treat Northern Europe as the sole cradle and normative reference for ‘Europeanness’. By shifting the focus to Southern European actors such as the Portuguese, GRADIENTS challenges this narrow framework and opens new directions for research.
The project also advances the field by interrogating the conventional divide between European imperialism in Africa before and after the Berlin Conference of 1884–1885. It reveals both the durability and the permeability of early modern forms of identity, and demonstrates how these were reconfigured into new imperial modes of identification in the late nineteenth century.
The project also advances the field by interrogating the conventional divide between European imperialism in Africa before and after the Berlin Conference of 1884–1885. It reveals both the durability and the permeability of early modern forms of identity, and demonstrates how these were reconfigured into new imperial modes of identification in the late nineteenth century.