Periodic Reporting for period 1 - GeoGen (The PsychoGeography of Intergenerational Mobility: Early life socioeconomic position, mental health, and educational performance)
Reporting period: 2022-09-01 to 2025-02-28
The GeoGen project seeks to explore the impact of socioeconomic factors on children's development and highlights its focus on understanding how a child's socioeconomic environment, including their neighbourhood and school, interacts with their psychological development and academic outcomes. This research is particularly relevant in today's world, where inequality is increasing and significantly impacting children's lives.
A major challenge in this field is distinguishing between correlation and causation, particularly when studying factors that cannot be experimentally manipulated. GeoGen aims to overcome this challenge by utilizing extensive data from Norwegian registries and birth cohorts.
By targeting school and neighbourhood differences, GeoGen is anticipated to have an impact on policy development and interventions aimed at improving child well-being, and aims to provide understanding of:
1. Intergenerational transmission of risk factors.
2. The role of early mental health in academic success.
3. Interactions between genetic and environmental factors.
4. Optimal school and neighbourhood characteristics for child development.
GeoGen's findings are expected to be valuable to policymakers, educators, and community leaders seeking to create supportive environments for children, especially those facing socioeconomic disadvantages.
A major challenge in this field is distinguishing between correlation and causation, particularly when studying factors that cannot be experimentally manipulated. GeoGen aims to overcome this challenge by utilizing extensive data from Norwegian registries and birth cohorts.
By targeting school and neighbourhood differences, GeoGen is anticipated to have an impact on policy development and interventions aimed at improving child well-being, and aims to provide understanding of:
1. Intergenerational transmission of risk factors.
2. The role of early mental health in academic success.
3. Interactions between genetic and environmental factors.
4. Optimal school and neighbourhood characteristics for child development.
GeoGen's findings are expected to be valuable to policymakers, educators, and community leaders seeking to create supportive environments for children, especially those facing socioeconomic disadvantages.
GeoGen use innovative methodologies to investigate the relationship between socioeconomic factors, mental health, and educational performance to study:
• Evaluating the Causal Impact of Parental Education on Children's Mental Health: Using within-family Mendelian Randomization (MR), a technique leveraging genetic variants to control for confounding factors, the project found limited evidence for a direct causal link between parental education and children's mental health. These findings indicate that other factors, such as unmeasured confounders, might play a more significant role or that genes and environments interact.
• Gene-Environment Interactions in Emotional Well-being: GeoGen revealed that influences of family environments on children's emotional symptoms were more pronounced in families with lower parental education levels, while influences of each individual’s environments were stronger in families with higher maternal income and education.
• School Environments as Moderators of Academic Performance: The project demonstrated variation in the impact of ADHD symptoms and genetic indices for ADHD and educational attainment on academic performance across different schools. This suggests that school environments can moderate the relationship between individual traits and educational progress, emphasizing the potential importance of school-based interventions.
• Non-cognitive Skills and Academic Success: The project supported the association between the childhood conscientious personality and future academic performance using a sibling fixed-effects design. This finding underscores that individual, rather than family, differences in conscientiousness play a role in academic success.
• Evaluating the Causal Impact of Parental Education on Children's Mental Health: Using within-family Mendelian Randomization (MR), a technique leveraging genetic variants to control for confounding factors, the project found limited evidence for a direct causal link between parental education and children's mental health. These findings indicate that other factors, such as unmeasured confounders, might play a more significant role or that genes and environments interact.
• Gene-Environment Interactions in Emotional Well-being: GeoGen revealed that influences of family environments on children's emotional symptoms were more pronounced in families with lower parental education levels, while influences of each individual’s environments were stronger in families with higher maternal income and education.
• School Environments as Moderators of Academic Performance: The project demonstrated variation in the impact of ADHD symptoms and genetic indices for ADHD and educational attainment on academic performance across different schools. This suggests that school environments can moderate the relationship between individual traits and educational progress, emphasizing the potential importance of school-based interventions.
• Non-cognitive Skills and Academic Success: The project supported the association between the childhood conscientious personality and future academic performance using a sibling fixed-effects design. This finding underscores that individual, rather than family, differences in conscientiousness play a role in academic success.
GeoGen has generated several groundbreaking results that advance our understanding of child development:
• Exogenous Child Effects on Maternal Traits: Using the innovative Trio-GCTA method, GeoGen demonstrated that a child's genes can indirectly influence their mother's risk for depression through environmental pathways. This breakthrough, supported by prior research on child-to-mother effects, emphasizes the bidirectional nature of parent-child relationships.
• Assortative Mating and Inequality: The project's investigation into assortative mating, the tendency for individuals to choose partners with similar traits or backgrounds, revealed that partners are as genetically similar as half-siblings for traits like educational attainment. Such partner selection suggests that assortative mating may contribute to widening socioeconomic disparities across generations.
• Latent School Environments and Educational Performance: The project challenged the Scarr-Rowe hypothesis, which posits that genetic influences on traits are more pronounced in high-socioeconomic-status environments. By examining between-school variability in the effects of genetic endowment on educational performance, GeoGen found strong support for a compensation gene-environment interaction, meaning that genetic influences might be more pronounced in less advantageous environments. This finding has significant implications for understanding how school environments can either mitigate or exacerbate the impact of genetic predispositions on academic outcomes. GeoGen employed a novel approach to estimate total latent school environments using data from hundreds of schools, and a within-family genetic design to control for parental selection of schools, making this study particularly robust.
These findings underscore the complex interplay of factors influencing child development and open new avenues for research and policy interventions aimed at improving child well-being.
Key Needs for Further Uptake and Success
To ensure the continued success and impact of GeoGen's findings, several key needs should be addressed:
• Addressing Representativeness and Generalizability: The MoBa cohort study, a key data source for GeoGen, has an overrepresentation of high-socioeconomic-status families and individuals of European ancestry. This limits the generalizability of the findings to more diverse populations. Future research should prioritize inclusion of participants from a wider range of socioeconomic backgrounds and ancestries to improve generalizability and ensure that findings are relevant to a broader population.
• Increasing Statistical Power and Sample Size: Some of GeoGen's analyses, particularly those employing within-family and trio designs, may have been limited by relatively small sample sizes. Expanding data collection efforts or conducting meta-analyses with data from other studies would increase statistical power and improve the reliability of findings.
• Addressing Challenges in Causal Inference: Determining causal relationships between genetic factors, environmental influences, and complex traits like mental health and educational performance is inherently challenging. GeoGen employed various strategies to mitigate these challenges, such as sibling-comparison designs, trio designs with parental genotype data, and Mendelian Randomization. Future research should continue to refine these methods and develop new approaches to strengthen causal inferences.
• Understanding Developmental Processes Over Time: The cross-sectional nature of some of GeoGen's analyses may not fully capture the dynamic interplay between genes, environment, and developmental trajectories. Incorporating longitudinal data and modelling techniques in future studies would provide a more comprehensive understanding of how these factors interact over time to shape developmental outcomes.
• Exploring Specific Genetic Effects: While GeoGen has made significant progress in identifying gene-environment interactions, the specific genetic variants contributing to complex traits remain largely unknown. Integrating genome-wide association studies (GWAS) findings with functional genomics data could help elucidate the specific genetic mechanisms underlying the observed associations, leading to more targeted interventions.
• Exogenous Child Effects on Maternal Traits: Using the innovative Trio-GCTA method, GeoGen demonstrated that a child's genes can indirectly influence their mother's risk for depression through environmental pathways. This breakthrough, supported by prior research on child-to-mother effects, emphasizes the bidirectional nature of parent-child relationships.
• Assortative Mating and Inequality: The project's investigation into assortative mating, the tendency for individuals to choose partners with similar traits or backgrounds, revealed that partners are as genetically similar as half-siblings for traits like educational attainment. Such partner selection suggests that assortative mating may contribute to widening socioeconomic disparities across generations.
• Latent School Environments and Educational Performance: The project challenged the Scarr-Rowe hypothesis, which posits that genetic influences on traits are more pronounced in high-socioeconomic-status environments. By examining between-school variability in the effects of genetic endowment on educational performance, GeoGen found strong support for a compensation gene-environment interaction, meaning that genetic influences might be more pronounced in less advantageous environments. This finding has significant implications for understanding how school environments can either mitigate or exacerbate the impact of genetic predispositions on academic outcomes. GeoGen employed a novel approach to estimate total latent school environments using data from hundreds of schools, and a within-family genetic design to control for parental selection of schools, making this study particularly robust.
These findings underscore the complex interplay of factors influencing child development and open new avenues for research and policy interventions aimed at improving child well-being.
Key Needs for Further Uptake and Success
To ensure the continued success and impact of GeoGen's findings, several key needs should be addressed:
• Addressing Representativeness and Generalizability: The MoBa cohort study, a key data source for GeoGen, has an overrepresentation of high-socioeconomic-status families and individuals of European ancestry. This limits the generalizability of the findings to more diverse populations. Future research should prioritize inclusion of participants from a wider range of socioeconomic backgrounds and ancestries to improve generalizability and ensure that findings are relevant to a broader population.
• Increasing Statistical Power and Sample Size: Some of GeoGen's analyses, particularly those employing within-family and trio designs, may have been limited by relatively small sample sizes. Expanding data collection efforts or conducting meta-analyses with data from other studies would increase statistical power and improve the reliability of findings.
• Addressing Challenges in Causal Inference: Determining causal relationships between genetic factors, environmental influences, and complex traits like mental health and educational performance is inherently challenging. GeoGen employed various strategies to mitigate these challenges, such as sibling-comparison designs, trio designs with parental genotype data, and Mendelian Randomization. Future research should continue to refine these methods and develop new approaches to strengthen causal inferences.
• Understanding Developmental Processes Over Time: The cross-sectional nature of some of GeoGen's analyses may not fully capture the dynamic interplay between genes, environment, and developmental trajectories. Incorporating longitudinal data and modelling techniques in future studies would provide a more comprehensive understanding of how these factors interact over time to shape developmental outcomes.
• Exploring Specific Genetic Effects: While GeoGen has made significant progress in identifying gene-environment interactions, the specific genetic variants contributing to complex traits remain largely unknown. Integrating genome-wide association studies (GWAS) findings with functional genomics data could help elucidate the specific genetic mechanisms underlying the observed associations, leading to more targeted interventions.