Periodic Reporting for period 1 - GREENLAM (Lightweight, Cost-effective Composite and Green Bipropellant System for Space Transportation Applications)
Reporting period: 2023-07-01 to 2025-12-31
The project titled "Lightweight Cost-effective Composite and Green Bipropellant System for Space Transportation Applications" (GREENLAM) successfully addressed the critical need for innovative, sustainable, and cost-effective technologies in space transportation. Responding to strategic imperatives like the European Green Deal, the project's core mission was to develop and validate the foundational technologies for a next-generation propulsion system by pioneering advancements in both green propellants and the advanced materials required to contain them.
Context and Motivation:
The modern space sector faces a dual challenge: reducing the high cost and environmental impact of launches while simultaneously improving performance and reliability. Traditional propulsion systems frequently rely on highly toxic and carcinogenic hypergolic propellants, such as hydrazine and its derivatives, which pose significant safety risks and require costly handling procedures. Furthermore, the heavy metallic alloys used in thruster manufacturing limit payload capacity and overall mission efficiency. GREENLAM was conceived to directly tackle these issues by creating a synergistic system of non-toxic propellants and lightweight, ultra-durable composite materials, thereby paving a path toward cleaner and more economical European space access.
Overall Objectives:
The project's primary objective was to develop and validate the core components for a lightweight, 100 N-class thruster designed for upper-stage applications. This was accomplished through two parallel research streams:
- Composite Material Innovation: The project successfully fabricated and characterized a novel Ultra-High Temperature Ceramic (UHTC) matrix made of Zirconium Diboride and Silicon Carbide (ZrB2–SiC) using Spark Plasma Sintering (SPS). Extensive experimental work identified a key manufacturing trade-off: high-energy milling with Tungsten Carbide (WC) media yielded superior material density (up to 99.2%) and flexural strength, while conventional milling with Zirconia (ZrO2) produced a cleaner composite with exceptional hardness (up to 17.08 GPa) and fracture toughness. This research provides a critical roadmap for tuning material properties based on specific performance requirements.
- Green Bipropellant System: The project successfully engineered and experimentally validated a hypergolic "green" bipropellant system. By doping kerosene fuel with a Manganese Acetylacetonate (Mn(II/III)AA) catalyst, research team achieved reliable, spontaneous ignition upon contact with High-Test Peroxide (HTP). This breakthrough eliminates the need for a separate, complex ignition system. The experimental campaign mapped the complete operational envelope, achieving exceptionally short Ignition Delay Times (IDTs) as low as 25 milliseconds under optimal preheated conditions.
Political and Strategic Context:
This research aligns closely with the European Green Deal's emphasis on low-emission transport technologies and sustainable innovation. By integrating green propellants and lightweight composite materials, the project directly supports Europe's commitment to lowering carbon emissions in space transportation. The project also addresses European strategic interests in aerospace by reducing dependency on non-European sources for critical materials like carbon fibers, as demonstrated by earlier EU-funded projects like EUCARBON.
Pathway to Impact:
GREENLAM's pathway to impact was realized through a powerful integration of experimental science and high-fidelity computational modeling. The material properties determined experimentally in Work Package 1 and the thermal and pressure loads generated from the bipropellant combustion analysis in Work Package 2 were fed into a comprehensive thermo-structural Finite Element Model (FEM) of the thruster. This simulation-driven approach successfully de-risked the technology and validated the thruster's design viability. It precisely identified critical stress zones—the nozzle throat during initial thermal shock and the flange region during prolonged burns—and enabled the optimization of the thruster's wall thickness to a tapered 2 mm profile, minimizing mass while ensuring structural integrity. This work provides a validated "digital twin" of the thruster, which is essential for future development and manufacturing.
Scale and Significance:
The project has significantly advanced the state-of-the-art for green propulsion in Europe. By successfully demonstrating a viable catalyst for HTP/Kerosene hypergolicity and characterizing a custom UHTCMC for its construction, GREENLAM has advanced the key technologies needed for a new class of reusable, low-toxicity thrusters. The project's scientific success is underscored by its prolific output of over ten research publications, far exceeding the initial target and contributing valuable, publicly available knowledge to the aerospace community. The findings create a direct pathway for developing flight-ready hardware that aligns with Europe's goals for strategic autonomy and environmental leadership in space.
Integration of Social Sciences and Humanities:
While the project is primarily technical in nature, its broader socio-political and ethical dimensions, particularly about environmental sustainability and the transition to green technologies, are inherently tied to the social sciences. The project considers the social impact of green technologies, particularly how the reduction of toxic emissions contributes to public health and environmental well-being. Additionally, the commercialization and adoption of green propellants involve regulatory and policy considerations that will require interdisciplinary collaboration, including insights from political science, economics, and environmental studies.
Context and Motivation:
The modern space sector faces a dual challenge: reducing the high cost and environmental impact of launches while simultaneously improving performance and reliability. Traditional propulsion systems frequently rely on highly toxic and carcinogenic hypergolic propellants, such as hydrazine and its derivatives, which pose significant safety risks and require costly handling procedures. Furthermore, the heavy metallic alloys used in thruster manufacturing limit payload capacity and overall mission efficiency. GREENLAM was conceived to directly tackle these issues by creating a synergistic system of non-toxic propellants and lightweight, ultra-durable composite materials, thereby paving a path toward cleaner and more economical European space access.
Overall Objectives:
The project's primary objective was to develop and validate the core components for a lightweight, 100 N-class thruster designed for upper-stage applications. This was accomplished through two parallel research streams:
- Composite Material Innovation: The project successfully fabricated and characterized a novel Ultra-High Temperature Ceramic (UHTC) matrix made of Zirconium Diboride and Silicon Carbide (ZrB2–SiC) using Spark Plasma Sintering (SPS). Extensive experimental work identified a key manufacturing trade-off: high-energy milling with Tungsten Carbide (WC) media yielded superior material density (up to 99.2%) and flexural strength, while conventional milling with Zirconia (ZrO2) produced a cleaner composite with exceptional hardness (up to 17.08 GPa) and fracture toughness. This research provides a critical roadmap for tuning material properties based on specific performance requirements.
- Green Bipropellant System: The project successfully engineered and experimentally validated a hypergolic "green" bipropellant system. By doping kerosene fuel with a Manganese Acetylacetonate (Mn(II/III)AA) catalyst, research team achieved reliable, spontaneous ignition upon contact with High-Test Peroxide (HTP). This breakthrough eliminates the need for a separate, complex ignition system. The experimental campaign mapped the complete operational envelope, achieving exceptionally short Ignition Delay Times (IDTs) as low as 25 milliseconds under optimal preheated conditions.
Political and Strategic Context:
This research aligns closely with the European Green Deal's emphasis on low-emission transport technologies and sustainable innovation. By integrating green propellants and lightweight composite materials, the project directly supports Europe's commitment to lowering carbon emissions in space transportation. The project also addresses European strategic interests in aerospace by reducing dependency on non-European sources for critical materials like carbon fibers, as demonstrated by earlier EU-funded projects like EUCARBON.
Pathway to Impact:
GREENLAM's pathway to impact was realized through a powerful integration of experimental science and high-fidelity computational modeling. The material properties determined experimentally in Work Package 1 and the thermal and pressure loads generated from the bipropellant combustion analysis in Work Package 2 were fed into a comprehensive thermo-structural Finite Element Model (FEM) of the thruster. This simulation-driven approach successfully de-risked the technology and validated the thruster's design viability. It precisely identified critical stress zones—the nozzle throat during initial thermal shock and the flange region during prolonged burns—and enabled the optimization of the thruster's wall thickness to a tapered 2 mm profile, minimizing mass while ensuring structural integrity. This work provides a validated "digital twin" of the thruster, which is essential for future development and manufacturing.
Scale and Significance:
The project has significantly advanced the state-of-the-art for green propulsion in Europe. By successfully demonstrating a viable catalyst for HTP/Kerosene hypergolicity and characterizing a custom UHTCMC for its construction, GREENLAM has advanced the key technologies needed for a new class of reusable, low-toxicity thrusters. The project's scientific success is underscored by its prolific output of over ten research publications, far exceeding the initial target and contributing valuable, publicly available knowledge to the aerospace community. The findings create a direct pathway for developing flight-ready hardware that aligns with Europe's goals for strategic autonomy and environmental leadership in space.
Integration of Social Sciences and Humanities:
While the project is primarily technical in nature, its broader socio-political and ethical dimensions, particularly about environmental sustainability and the transition to green technologies, are inherently tied to the social sciences. The project considers the social impact of green technologies, particularly how the reduction of toxic emissions contributes to public health and environmental well-being. Additionally, the commercialization and adoption of green propellants involve regulatory and policy considerations that will require interdisciplinary collaboration, including insights from political science, economics, and environmental studies.
The scientific and technical work for the GREENLAM project was structured into three primary Work Packages (WPs). The project successfully completed the objectives for WP1 and WP2 through extensive experimental campaigns and initiated a highly successful simulation-based approach for WP3, pivoting from the original plan due to external factors. This pivot resulted in a prolific research output, with the project generating over ten scientific publications, significantly exceeding its initial goals.
Work Package 1: Characterization and Fabrication of UHTCMC Materials
Objective: To develop, fabricate, and characterize a novel Ultra-High Temperature Ceramic (UHTC) composite suitable for a high-temperature thruster environment.
Activities and Achievements:
Successful Fabrication of ZrB2-SiC Composites: The project successfully fabricated dense ZrB2–20 vol% SiC ceramic composites using the Spark Plasma Sintering (SPS) technique. A comprehensive parametric study was conducted, systematically investigating the effects of sintering temperature, pressure, and dwell time on the material's properties.
Identification of Optimal Manufacturing Processes: A key achievement was the detailed comparative analysis of two powder preparation methods. High-energy milling with Tungsten Carbide (WC) balls was found to produce composites with the highest relative density (99.2%) and superior flexural strength (516 MPa). In contrast, conventional milling with Zirconia (ZrO2) balls yielded a cleaner, phase-pure material with higher hardness (17.08 GPa) and fracture toughness (3.97 MPa·m¹/²). This provides a clear process-property map for tailoring the material for specific needs.
Microstructural and Mechanical Characterization: Extensive characterization was performed using SEM, XRD, and EDS analysis to understand the phase composition, grain size, and porosity. Mechanical tests confirmed the material's excellent properties, though it was noted that incorporating short carbon fibers at high volume fractions (35 vol%) proved challenging with the current SPS protocols, often leading to sample failure during fabrication.
Work Package 2: Development of HTP-Kerosene Green Bipropellant System
Objective: To formulate and experimentally validate a green, hypergolic bipropellant system using High-Test Peroxide (HTP) and kerosene.
Activities and Achievements:
Demonstration of Hypergolic Ignition: The project's most significant experimental achievement was successfully inducing reliable hypergolic (self-igniting) behavior in the HTP/Kerosene system. This was accomplished by doping the kerosene fuel with a Manganese (II/III) Acetylacetonate (Mn(II)AA/Mn(III)AA) catalyst, which eliminates the need for a separate ignition system.
Ultra-Short Ignition Delay Times: Through an extensive series of over 1000 drop tests, the project achieved exceptionally short and reliable Ignition Delay Times (IDTs). Under optimal conditions (98% HTP, 10 wt% catalyst, 50°C), the IDT was reduced to a remarkable 25 milliseconds.
Comprehensive Performance Mapping: The full "ignition envelope" was mapped by varying HTP concentration (85–98%), catalyst loading (0.5–10 wt%), and O/F ratio (4.5–7.5). The study confirmed that preheating the fuel to 50°C dramatically improves ignition reliability and reduces IDTs by 30-40%.
Kinetic and Mechanistic Analysis: The ignition process was successfully deconvolved into its distinct physical and chemical phases. Kinetic analysis revealed very low apparent activation energies (~9–14 kJ/mol), confirming the high efficiency of the Mn-based catalysts.
Work Package 3: High-Fidelity Simulation and Digital Prototyping
Objective: To integrate the findings from WP1 and WP2 into a "digital twin" of the thruster, performing high-fidelity simulations to validate the design, optimize its structure, and assess its operational risks.
Activities and Achievements:
Development of a Validated CFD Combustion Model: A transient, high-fidelity CFD model was created to simulate the combustion of the HTP/Kerosene bipropellant. The model, which incorporated real-gas effects and finite-rate chemistry, was validated against NASA's CEA tool and showed that a stoichiometric mixture with 98% HTP delivered the best performance, producing 63.22 N of sea-level thrust. The simulations generated the critical thermal and pressure loads needed for structural analysis.
Thermo-Structural Analysis and Wall Thickness Optimization: The thermal loads from the CFD model were applied to a Finite Element Model (FEM) of the UHTCMC thruster. The analysis identified critical stress zones and enabled the optimization of the thruster's wall thickness to a tapered 2 mm profile, which minimized mass while ensuring structural integrity under operational loads.
Probabilistic Damage Modeling and Risk Assessment: A novel, simulation-derived stress-margin envelope methodology was developed to assess the thruster's lifetime and risk of failure without relying on extensive experimental fatigue data. This probabilistic model identified that the nozzle throat is the most critical region for thermal shock damage during short burns (<1 s), while the flange region is the main concern for longer burns (>3.68 s), providing a clear map of operational risk zones.
Work Package 1: Characterization and Fabrication of UHTCMC Materials
Objective: To develop, fabricate, and characterize a novel Ultra-High Temperature Ceramic (UHTC) composite suitable for a high-temperature thruster environment.
Activities and Achievements:
Successful Fabrication of ZrB2-SiC Composites: The project successfully fabricated dense ZrB2–20 vol% SiC ceramic composites using the Spark Plasma Sintering (SPS) technique. A comprehensive parametric study was conducted, systematically investigating the effects of sintering temperature, pressure, and dwell time on the material's properties.
Identification of Optimal Manufacturing Processes: A key achievement was the detailed comparative analysis of two powder preparation methods. High-energy milling with Tungsten Carbide (WC) balls was found to produce composites with the highest relative density (99.2%) and superior flexural strength (516 MPa). In contrast, conventional milling with Zirconia (ZrO2) balls yielded a cleaner, phase-pure material with higher hardness (17.08 GPa) and fracture toughness (3.97 MPa·m¹/²). This provides a clear process-property map for tailoring the material for specific needs.
Microstructural and Mechanical Characterization: Extensive characterization was performed using SEM, XRD, and EDS analysis to understand the phase composition, grain size, and porosity. Mechanical tests confirmed the material's excellent properties, though it was noted that incorporating short carbon fibers at high volume fractions (35 vol%) proved challenging with the current SPS protocols, often leading to sample failure during fabrication.
Work Package 2: Development of HTP-Kerosene Green Bipropellant System
Objective: To formulate and experimentally validate a green, hypergolic bipropellant system using High-Test Peroxide (HTP) and kerosene.
Activities and Achievements:
Demonstration of Hypergolic Ignition: The project's most significant experimental achievement was successfully inducing reliable hypergolic (self-igniting) behavior in the HTP/Kerosene system. This was accomplished by doping the kerosene fuel with a Manganese (II/III) Acetylacetonate (Mn(II)AA/Mn(III)AA) catalyst, which eliminates the need for a separate ignition system.
Ultra-Short Ignition Delay Times: Through an extensive series of over 1000 drop tests, the project achieved exceptionally short and reliable Ignition Delay Times (IDTs). Under optimal conditions (98% HTP, 10 wt% catalyst, 50°C), the IDT was reduced to a remarkable 25 milliseconds.
Comprehensive Performance Mapping: The full "ignition envelope" was mapped by varying HTP concentration (85–98%), catalyst loading (0.5–10 wt%), and O/F ratio (4.5–7.5). The study confirmed that preheating the fuel to 50°C dramatically improves ignition reliability and reduces IDTs by 30-40%.
Kinetic and Mechanistic Analysis: The ignition process was successfully deconvolved into its distinct physical and chemical phases. Kinetic analysis revealed very low apparent activation energies (~9–14 kJ/mol), confirming the high efficiency of the Mn-based catalysts.
Work Package 3: High-Fidelity Simulation and Digital Prototyping
Objective: To integrate the findings from WP1 and WP2 into a "digital twin" of the thruster, performing high-fidelity simulations to validate the design, optimize its structure, and assess its operational risks.
Activities and Achievements:
Development of a Validated CFD Combustion Model: A transient, high-fidelity CFD model was created to simulate the combustion of the HTP/Kerosene bipropellant. The model, which incorporated real-gas effects and finite-rate chemistry, was validated against NASA's CEA tool and showed that a stoichiometric mixture with 98% HTP delivered the best performance, producing 63.22 N of sea-level thrust. The simulations generated the critical thermal and pressure loads needed for structural analysis.
Thermo-Structural Analysis and Wall Thickness Optimization: The thermal loads from the CFD model were applied to a Finite Element Model (FEM) of the UHTCMC thruster. The analysis identified critical stress zones and enabled the optimization of the thruster's wall thickness to a tapered 2 mm profile, which minimized mass while ensuring structural integrity under operational loads.
Probabilistic Damage Modeling and Risk Assessment: A novel, simulation-derived stress-margin envelope methodology was developed to assess the thruster's lifetime and risk of failure without relying on extensive experimental fatigue data. This probabilistic model identified that the nozzle throat is the most critical region for thermal shock damage during short burns (<1 s), while the flange region is the main concern for longer burns (>3.68 s), providing a clear map of operational risk zones.
The GREENLAM project has delivered significant scientific and technological advancements that push the boundaries of green space propulsion. The results not only meet the project's original objectives but also open new pathways for designing next-generation, sustainable rocket engines. The key breakthroughs are centered on a novel hypergolic ignition system, advanced ceramic manufacturing, and an integrated simulation framework.
Overview of Main Results:
A Novel Green Hypergolic Ignition System: The project's most significant breakthrough is the successful demonstration of reliable, rapid hypergolic (self-igniting) combustion between High-Test Peroxide (HTP) and kerosene. This was achieved by dissolving a novel Manganese Acetylacetonate (Mn(II/III)AA) catalyst directly into the kerosene fuel without compromising the overall fuel volume weight per cent and performance. This innovation eliminates the need for complex and heavy catalytic beds or external ignition systems, which are standard in many peroxide engines. The system achieved exceptionally short Ignition Delay Times (IDTs) of just 25 milliseconds under preheated conditions (50°C). Crucially, these impressive results were achieved in drop tests conducted at atmospheric pressure (1 atm). Since operational rocket engines are pressurized systems, these IDTs are expected to be even lower under flight conditions, further highlighting the robustness and high performance of this catalytic system.
Advanced UHTCMC Fabrication Protocol: The project has established a detailed process-property relationship for creating Ultra-High Temperature Ceramic (UHTC) composites (ZrB2–SiC) using Spark Plasma Sintering (SPS). Beyond simply fabricating the material, the research provides a clear manufacturing trade-off analysis: high-energy milling with Tungsten Carbide (WC) media produces a denser material with superior flexural strength, whereas conventional Zirconia (ZrO2) milling yields a cleaner composite with exceptional hardness and fracture toughness. This result is a crucial step beyond the state of the art, as it provides a clear guideline for tailoring the ceramic's mechanical properties for specific structural requirements (e.g. toughness for the combustion chamber vs. strength for the nozzle throat).
High-Fidelity "Digital Twin" for Thruster Design: GREENLAM successfully integrated its experimental findings into a powerful, high-fidelity simulation framework—a "digital twin" of the thruster system. This framework couples the transient, reactive flow of the propellants (CFD) with the resulting thermo-mechanical stresses on the UHTCMC structure (FEM). The model was further enhanced with a novel probabilistic damage assessment methodology, which can predict the operational lifetime and identify high-risk zones without depending on extensive, and often unavailable, experimental fatigue data for new materials. This simulation-first approach represents a state-of-the-art methodology for rapidly designing, optimizing, and de-risking advanced propulsion systems.
Potential Impacts and Needs for Further Uptake:
The results from GREENLAM have laid the foundation for a new class of European green propulsion technology with significant potential impacts.
Impact on Space Propulsion: This work provides a direct, viable pathway to replacing toxic hypergolic propellants like hydrazine. The simplified, catalyst-doped fuel system can lead to lighter, cheaper, and more reliable engines for satellites and upper stages, ultimately increasing payload capacity and reducing mission costs. The durable UHTCMC material enables higher combustion temperatures and promotes reusability, further enhancing mission efficiency.
Key Needs for Further Uptake and Success: To ensure the successful transition of this technology from the laboratory to commercial application, the following steps are critical:
Further Research and Physical Demonstration: The immediate next step is to manufacture and conduct hot-fire testing of a full-scale thruster prototype. This is essential to validate the "digital twin" simulations and demonstrate the performance of the hypergolic ignition system in an integrated engine environment. Further research should also focus on overcoming the challenges identified in incorporating carbon fibers to create a true UHTCMC with enhanced toughness.
Intellectual Property and Commercialization: Securing a patent for the novel Mn(II/III)AA-based catalyst system is a key priority to protect the project's intellectual property. Following this, strategic partnerships with aerospace manufacturers specializing in advanced ceramics and additive manufacturing will be crucial for scaling up production and establishing a European supply chain.
Supportive Regulatory and Standardization Framework: Engagement with space agencies and regulatory bodies is needed to help establish qualification and certification standards for this new class of green propellants and UHTCMC thrusters. This will be a critical enabler for market acceptance and flight readiness.
Access to Finance: Securing follow-on funding through programs like Horizon Europe or from venture capital will be necessary to support the capital-intensive phases of prototyping, qualification testing, and commercial scale-up.
Overview of Main Results:
A Novel Green Hypergolic Ignition System: The project's most significant breakthrough is the successful demonstration of reliable, rapid hypergolic (self-igniting) combustion between High-Test Peroxide (HTP) and kerosene. This was achieved by dissolving a novel Manganese Acetylacetonate (Mn(II/III)AA) catalyst directly into the kerosene fuel without compromising the overall fuel volume weight per cent and performance. This innovation eliminates the need for complex and heavy catalytic beds or external ignition systems, which are standard in many peroxide engines. The system achieved exceptionally short Ignition Delay Times (IDTs) of just 25 milliseconds under preheated conditions (50°C). Crucially, these impressive results were achieved in drop tests conducted at atmospheric pressure (1 atm). Since operational rocket engines are pressurized systems, these IDTs are expected to be even lower under flight conditions, further highlighting the robustness and high performance of this catalytic system.
Advanced UHTCMC Fabrication Protocol: The project has established a detailed process-property relationship for creating Ultra-High Temperature Ceramic (UHTC) composites (ZrB2–SiC) using Spark Plasma Sintering (SPS). Beyond simply fabricating the material, the research provides a clear manufacturing trade-off analysis: high-energy milling with Tungsten Carbide (WC) media produces a denser material with superior flexural strength, whereas conventional Zirconia (ZrO2) milling yields a cleaner composite with exceptional hardness and fracture toughness. This result is a crucial step beyond the state of the art, as it provides a clear guideline for tailoring the ceramic's mechanical properties for specific structural requirements (e.g. toughness for the combustion chamber vs. strength for the nozzle throat).
High-Fidelity "Digital Twin" for Thruster Design: GREENLAM successfully integrated its experimental findings into a powerful, high-fidelity simulation framework—a "digital twin" of the thruster system. This framework couples the transient, reactive flow of the propellants (CFD) with the resulting thermo-mechanical stresses on the UHTCMC structure (FEM). The model was further enhanced with a novel probabilistic damage assessment methodology, which can predict the operational lifetime and identify high-risk zones without depending on extensive, and often unavailable, experimental fatigue data for new materials. This simulation-first approach represents a state-of-the-art methodology for rapidly designing, optimizing, and de-risking advanced propulsion systems.
Potential Impacts and Needs for Further Uptake:
The results from GREENLAM have laid the foundation for a new class of European green propulsion technology with significant potential impacts.
Impact on Space Propulsion: This work provides a direct, viable pathway to replacing toxic hypergolic propellants like hydrazine. The simplified, catalyst-doped fuel system can lead to lighter, cheaper, and more reliable engines for satellites and upper stages, ultimately increasing payload capacity and reducing mission costs. The durable UHTCMC material enables higher combustion temperatures and promotes reusability, further enhancing mission efficiency.
Key Needs for Further Uptake and Success: To ensure the successful transition of this technology from the laboratory to commercial application, the following steps are critical:
Further Research and Physical Demonstration: The immediate next step is to manufacture and conduct hot-fire testing of a full-scale thruster prototype. This is essential to validate the "digital twin" simulations and demonstrate the performance of the hypergolic ignition system in an integrated engine environment. Further research should also focus on overcoming the challenges identified in incorporating carbon fibers to create a true UHTCMC with enhanced toughness.
Intellectual Property and Commercialization: Securing a patent for the novel Mn(II/III)AA-based catalyst system is a key priority to protect the project's intellectual property. Following this, strategic partnerships with aerospace manufacturers specializing in advanced ceramics and additive manufacturing will be crucial for scaling up production and establishing a European supply chain.
Supportive Regulatory and Standardization Framework: Engagement with space agencies and regulatory bodies is needed to help establish qualification and certification standards for this new class of green propellants and UHTCMC thrusters. This will be a critical enabler for market acceptance and flight readiness.
Access to Finance: Securing follow-on funding through programs like Horizon Europe or from venture capital will be necessary to support the capital-intensive phases of prototyping, qualification testing, and commercial scale-up.