Final Report Summary - RAIELSP (Reconstructing Ancient (Biblical) Israel: The Exact and Life Sciences Perspective)
This project was aimed at answering questions related to biblical history – the time, origin, life, mind and identity of Ancient Israel in the Iron Age – by combining macro and micro-archaeology research. In ‘micro-archaeology’ we refer to the extraction of information from the archaeological record that cannot be discerned by the naked eye. The project was conducted in ten research tracks that involved over 40 researchers. Fieldwork was carried out in cooperation with ca. 20 excavations in Israel, Greece and Cyprus. Work resulted in the publication of more than 50 scholarly articles. Results caught attention of world media – two stories – on our pollen research and paleoclimate and aDNA of pigs – appeared in the New York Times. Below we describe the main results that have been achieved:
Radiocarbon-dating: 1) A comprehensive radiocarbon-dating project of 12 strata that cover ca. 600 years at the site of Megiddo (Armageddon) produced an unprecedented detailed chronology that can now be used as a frame-work for absolute dating in the entire Levant and as a tool for resolving historical issues related to biblical times. 2) Samples taken from sites in Greece provided absolute dates for early Greek chronology and helped to link Greek and Levantine chronologies.
Ancient DNA: Exploring the modern Israeli wild pig population indicated a European haplotype, while Iron Age samples contained a mixture of Middle Eastern and European haplotypes. A careful analysis of pig remains from archaeological excavations in Israel managed to place this transition in the early Iron Age, illuminating a new aspect of ancient human migrations.
Geo-archaeology: 1) We developed a new method using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) to assess atomic disorder in calcite and carbonate apatite, two important minerals in archaeology, that enable us to identify the sources and states of preservation of these minerals. 2) Field work in a small single-period site provided an important methodological tool – using phytolith (siliceous minerals in plants) concentrations to help delineate boundaries of activity areas surrounding archaeological sites. 3) Analysis of destruction horizons at the sites of Megiddo and Tell es-Safi/Gath provided information on activity areas that could not be previously discerned and indicated more precise processes of site formation and deterioration.
Palynology: Pollen grains are composed of stable organic material that can preserve for long periods of time provided they are not exposed to oxygen. We have produced a high resolution pollen curve based on a sediment cores extracted from the margin of the Dead Sea and the centre of the Sea of Galilee. The analysis revealed a climate crisis at the transition from the Late Bronze to the Iron Age, which may well have had a central role in the deterioration of the Late Bronze Age system.
Petrography: Investigation of a large assemblage of pottery from Negev Highlands’ sites showed a strong connection to the southern coastal plain and to the copper-production centres in the Arabah Valley. These results clarified the mechanisms behind a short wave of settlement which took place in this arid zones of the southern Levant in the Iron Age.
Metallurgy: 1)The use of an on-site laboratory enabled the identification of a rare bronze and iron workshop at Tell es-Safi/Gath. The macroscopic finds were minimal and the workshop could easily have been overlooked using routine excavation techniques, which probably explains why so few workshops are known from this period despite the large amounts of metal objects unearthed. 2) Provenance studies for copper ingots have identified copper production centres of the Iron Age at Cyprus and the Arabah.
Daily mathematics: We are obtaining insight into the mathematical skills of Iron Age potters and traders by studying the metric system used for the production of trade vessels. One study, carried out on Phoenician-made jars recovered from an 8th century BCE deep-sea shipwreck found off the coast of Israel, showed that the potters used an Egyptian metric system and that the volumes were standardized. This illuminates trade patterns in the eastern Mediterranean under Assyrian hegemony.
Ancient Hebrew inscriptions: 1) Attempts to produce an automated facsimile of an ancient Hebrew ostracon (ceramic-sherd inscribed with ink) using Raman spectroscopy (laser that causes emission of a light signal), showed that the ink signal differs from that of the ceramic, and thus the ink distribution can be mapped. 2) Spectral imaging of ostraca was achieved using visual colour and infrared wavelengths. Images taken around the optimum wavelength provided significantly improved readability compared to the usual colour images. 3) A facsimile quality evaluation method was developed, to compare different facsimiles for the same ostracon and objectively identify the best one. These techniques advance the ability to decipher vague ink signals in ancient Hebrew inscriptions.
Residue analysis: By extracting lipid molecules from pores in ceramics, we have shown that unusually shaped so-called chalices from Philistia contain molecule assemblages thought to be derived from parent-compounds which could cause hallucinogenic effects – testifying to the use of chalices in various rituals. Work on Phoenician monochrome flasks reveals the presence of the major component of cinnamon, probably attesting to long-distance trade in the Iron Age.
Zoo-archaeology: A study of faunal assemblages from a large number of sites in Israel shed light on animal husbandry strategies during the different phases of the Iron Age. Especially noteworthy is the change in animal management and meat consumption under Assyrian imperial domination.
Radiocarbon-dating: 1) A comprehensive radiocarbon-dating project of 12 strata that cover ca. 600 years at the site of Megiddo (Armageddon) produced an unprecedented detailed chronology that can now be used as a frame-work for absolute dating in the entire Levant and as a tool for resolving historical issues related to biblical times. 2) Samples taken from sites in Greece provided absolute dates for early Greek chronology and helped to link Greek and Levantine chronologies.
Ancient DNA: Exploring the modern Israeli wild pig population indicated a European haplotype, while Iron Age samples contained a mixture of Middle Eastern and European haplotypes. A careful analysis of pig remains from archaeological excavations in Israel managed to place this transition in the early Iron Age, illuminating a new aspect of ancient human migrations.
Geo-archaeology: 1) We developed a new method using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) to assess atomic disorder in calcite and carbonate apatite, two important minerals in archaeology, that enable us to identify the sources and states of preservation of these minerals. 2) Field work in a small single-period site provided an important methodological tool – using phytolith (siliceous minerals in plants) concentrations to help delineate boundaries of activity areas surrounding archaeological sites. 3) Analysis of destruction horizons at the sites of Megiddo and Tell es-Safi/Gath provided information on activity areas that could not be previously discerned and indicated more precise processes of site formation and deterioration.
Palynology: Pollen grains are composed of stable organic material that can preserve for long periods of time provided they are not exposed to oxygen. We have produced a high resolution pollen curve based on a sediment cores extracted from the margin of the Dead Sea and the centre of the Sea of Galilee. The analysis revealed a climate crisis at the transition from the Late Bronze to the Iron Age, which may well have had a central role in the deterioration of the Late Bronze Age system.
Petrography: Investigation of a large assemblage of pottery from Negev Highlands’ sites showed a strong connection to the southern coastal plain and to the copper-production centres in the Arabah Valley. These results clarified the mechanisms behind a short wave of settlement which took place in this arid zones of the southern Levant in the Iron Age.
Metallurgy: 1)The use of an on-site laboratory enabled the identification of a rare bronze and iron workshop at Tell es-Safi/Gath. The macroscopic finds were minimal and the workshop could easily have been overlooked using routine excavation techniques, which probably explains why so few workshops are known from this period despite the large amounts of metal objects unearthed. 2) Provenance studies for copper ingots have identified copper production centres of the Iron Age at Cyprus and the Arabah.
Daily mathematics: We are obtaining insight into the mathematical skills of Iron Age potters and traders by studying the metric system used for the production of trade vessels. One study, carried out on Phoenician-made jars recovered from an 8th century BCE deep-sea shipwreck found off the coast of Israel, showed that the potters used an Egyptian metric system and that the volumes were standardized. This illuminates trade patterns in the eastern Mediterranean under Assyrian hegemony.
Ancient Hebrew inscriptions: 1) Attempts to produce an automated facsimile of an ancient Hebrew ostracon (ceramic-sherd inscribed with ink) using Raman spectroscopy (laser that causes emission of a light signal), showed that the ink signal differs from that of the ceramic, and thus the ink distribution can be mapped. 2) Spectral imaging of ostraca was achieved using visual colour and infrared wavelengths. Images taken around the optimum wavelength provided significantly improved readability compared to the usual colour images. 3) A facsimile quality evaluation method was developed, to compare different facsimiles for the same ostracon and objectively identify the best one. These techniques advance the ability to decipher vague ink signals in ancient Hebrew inscriptions.
Residue analysis: By extracting lipid molecules from pores in ceramics, we have shown that unusually shaped so-called chalices from Philistia contain molecule assemblages thought to be derived from parent-compounds which could cause hallucinogenic effects – testifying to the use of chalices in various rituals. Work on Phoenician monochrome flasks reveals the presence of the major component of cinnamon, probably attesting to long-distance trade in the Iron Age.
Zoo-archaeology: A study of faunal assemblages from a large number of sites in Israel shed light on animal husbandry strategies during the different phases of the Iron Age. Especially noteworthy is the change in animal management and meat consumption under Assyrian imperial domination.