Final Report Summary - SOLIBAM (Strategies for Organic and Low-input Integrated Breeding And Management)
Executive Summary:
Based on the hypothesis of “diversity”, SOLIBAM has designed and tested innovative strategies to develop specific and novel breeding approaches integrated with management practices to improve the performance, quality, sustainability and stability of crops adapted to organic and low-input systems. The SOLIBAM project has been carried out by 23 partners, representing 12 countries in Europe and Africa, within the context of a lack of adapted varieties specifically for organic and low input agriculture. A fundamental characteristic of these farming approaches is a wide range of variability within the farming system, combined with a wide range of environmental variation. Having a choice of adapted plants and practices is the only means to build a sustainable farming system which is characterized by a complexity of interactions. As a basis the team - representing several kinds of actors, researchers, seed companies, farmer’s organisations and also involving end-users and consumers - therefore developed tools and methodologies to better understand and manage complexity.
From more than 50 field experiments and case studies in 4 countries and 8 major crop models (durum and soft wheat, barley, maize, faba beans, bean, tomato and broccoli), combined with several competencies including genetics, plant breeding, agronomy, ecology, food science, statistics, sociology and economics, SOLIBAM has established 10 major concepts for cultivating diversity (resilience, robustness, functional biodiversity, yield stability, adaptability, intercropping, sustainability, evolutionary processes, organoleptic quality, participatory research), building strong transdisciplinarity in a dynamic process of knowledge integration.
Within SOLIBAM, plant diversity was observed, analysed, developed and enhanced by the creation of new populations and varieties exploited for novel crop management practices. Genetic structure, observed by relevant markers, of the different types of varieties and populations studied strongly reflected the selection / conservation history of the populations showing, in many cases, significant and rapid differentiation due to cultivation in contrasting agro-climatic conditions and to farmers’ breeding practices or breeding. In addition to activities devoted to field and crop studies, the overall farm system has been assessed at three system levels: the cropping system, the farm and the chain from breeder to farmer (plant breeding and legal aspects) and to consumer (the food supply system). There was a specific focus on resource use efficiency, environmental impacts and socio-economic assessments in case studies from the UK, France, Italy and Portugal.
Part of SOLIBAMs research was participatory in nature, based on the experience and skills of a number of partners to improve knowledge sharing and to involve several kinds of actor and their activities. In a number of cases, the transdisciplinarity within SOLIBAM has allowed links to be made between scientific knowledge and practitioner ‘know-how’ in complementary ways.
SOLIBAM has developed various agro-ecological innovations which are at the core of its strategies:
- new approaches to plant breeding and development which simultaneously consider diversity and quality, performance and stability, co-breeding for intercropping, or crop-pollinator interactions;
- new food products with improved quality properties;
- new tools for participatory plant breeding and management (PPBM) in which farmers, researchers and other stakeholders together designed new breeding methods for decentralized programmes, tools for resource and trial management, and for the statistical analysis of results, along with integrating methodologies to better select for flavoursome products;
- social innovation and collective action for decentralised and participatory research;
- new modelling tools to better understand and assess resilience, viability and sustainability of farms.
In conclusion, SOLIBAM identified three key words - Diversity, Participatory Innovation and Locality/Terroir - that should be at the cornerstone of future agricultural propositions for policy makers so as to adapt the seed system, knowledge system and food system to accommodate diverse cultivated crops.
Project Context and Objectives:
Agricultural context
Five years ago, in the general context of seeking more sustainable agriculture and food systems, SOLIBAM was conceived to elaborate innovative strategies for developing specific and novel breeding approaches integrated with management practices to improve the performance, quality, sustainability and stability of crops adapted to organic and low-input systems, in their diversity in Europe and taking into account small-scale farms in Africa, mostly in Ethiopia. SOLIBAM has been a research programme which combined many disciplines and values with the aim of increasing system diversity and thus measuring impacts at multiple levels of agricultural production, from genetic aspects to environmental and socio-economical dimensions. The programme culminated in policy recommendations covering several aspects. The SOLIBAM consortium identified three key words that should be at the cornerstone of future European agricultural and research policies: Diversity, Participatory Innovation and Locality/Terroir.
At the conclusion of SOLIBAM, its founding values have been reinforced as the FAO in Rome calls for a “paradigm shift” towards sustainable agriculture and family farming . The FAO Director-General opened the 24th session of the Committee on Agriculture (COAG) on the 29th September 2014 by this declaration: “Policy makers should support a broad array of approaches to overhauling global food systems, making them healthier and more sustainable while acknowledging that we cannot rely on an input intensive model to increase production and that the solutions of the past have shown their limits". He said that today's main challenges are to lower the use of agricultural inputs, especially water and chemicals, in order to put agriculture, forestry and fisheries on a more sustainable and productive long-term path.
Within the last five years, loss of diversity, climate change and questions about environmental pollution have been increasingly posed but no actions seem sufficiently broad to address all these issues.. All types of agriculture begin with seed availability. SOLIBAM was launched by recognising that low-input and organic farming systems require crop genotypes that are specifically adapted to the higher environmental variability typical of these systems and that conventionally bred genotypes are often unsuited for use under such conditions. This has become ever more critical in a time of climate destabilisation.
Recent data in Europe confirm the growth of organic production and the market. Consumer interest in organic products remains high and despite the difficult economic climate shared by numerous countries within Europe, consumer concern about the way food is produced is increasing . In this context, outputs from SOLIBAM are well-placed to contribute to the wider challenges facing sustainability of food systems.
The overall objective
The overall objective of SOLIBAM was to provide methodologies and strategies to improve the performance, quality, sustainability and stability of crops adapted to organic and low-input systems, in their diversity in Europe and taking into account small-scale farms in Africa.
The notion of performance in organic and low input agriculture is recognised to cover a complex reality, and is not limited purely to yield. One important objective of the SOLIBAM project therefore was to elaborate concepts and methods so as to describe and analyse plant and crop performance under complex criteria. These concepts were progressively defined and honed during the project and have integrated several disciplines and dimensions of knowledge. They also emphasise how new research approaches, such as action-research or participatory research, have enhanced efficiency.
Hypothesis
The fundamental hypothesis of SOLIBAM is diversity. Diverse populations in diverse organic and low-input systems are expected to be more resilient to stress and can therefore better adapt to environmental variation. Diversity was studied and developed at multiple levels: from genetic diversity within cultivars to crop diversity on-farm, diversified crop management and diversity in food products. A fundamental characteristic of these farming approaches is a high variability within the farming system, combined with a wide range of environmental variation. Having a choice of adapted plants and practices is the only means to build a sustainable farming system which is characterised by a complexity of interactions.
Workpackages objectives
* Better knowledge of the context of organic and low input agricultures
The SOLIBAM team aimed to better determine the characteristics of organic and low input agricultures in their respective contexts and to define a common vision of low input agriculture compared to organic agriculture on the one hand and conventional agriculture on the other. The description of the diversity of low-input and organic systems, in terms of agroecological zones within the EU and the development of organic agriculture in Europe and Africa were complementary objectives. Finally, the stakeholders’ expectations and the status of organic seeds needed to be described at several levels: (1) Organic seed systems in Europe, (2) the African context of the study, i.e. seed systems, seed laws and local varieties and (3) Stakeholder expectations and the factors influencing seed and variety choices. The SOLIBAM project has been carried out within the context of a lack of adapted varieties specifically for organic and low input agriculture. Commercial breeding companies and associations, which have driven the development of cereal, legume and vegetable breeding in the conventional sector were, until recently, reluctant to develop specific breeding programmes for the organic and low input sector. SOLIBAM tried to analyse the reasons for this.
* Methodological development to increase diversity and improve its evaluation
The SOLIBAM team wished to develop both concepts and methods to implement the “paradigm shift” towards sustainable agriculture called for by policy makers. Two types of complementary approaches were undertaken to define and explore strategies to (i) identify specific crop traits and how they can be managed in different farming systems and for different markets and (ii) assess the concept of variety performance in a broader sense through stability, adaptability and evolutionary processes. In the framework of these approaches, the aims were:
- to identify specific management practices adapted to low-input/organic conditions in different agro-climatic regions and farming systems;
- to identify combinations of plant characteristics required for a crop to be successful in organic and low input growing systems and develop methodologies for measuring these characteristics;
- to define, in parallel with the aims above, a scientific basis for concepts such as plant health, yield stability, adaptability and robustness in the context of organic and low-input agriculture; and
- to identify the consequences of different breeding strategies and approaches to crop management for the development of varieties.
Understanding crop diversity
When SOLIBAM was launched, there had been some interesting attempts to make use of higher within species variation to select genotypes suited to organic and low-input farming. The SOLIBAM objective was to evaluate and enlarge upon these experiences on the basis that innovation should arise from joint research efforts putting together innovative breeding with innovative crop management, using increased cropping system diversification as the starting point.
Phenotypic responses have been assessed by considering both specific adaptive traits and more general adaptation features. The level and variability of outcrossing in populations has been observed in relation to different agroecological conditions in order to develop strategies to increase and maintain heterozygosity and heterogeneity, and thus the buffering capacity, within the populations. Based on the insights obtained on the genetic and epigenetic mechanisms involved in adaptation to organic and low input farming, appropriate strategies incorporating marker assisted selection (MAS) at different levels were explored. Although there has been a large investment in the development of biotechnology tools for crop species in the past 30 years, their use in the case of complex traits needed to be evaluated, especially within the framework of breeding for organic or low input (LI) farming systems where such traits are controlled by many genes interacting not only with each other, but also and with complex and variable environments. SOLIBAM aimed to explore new approaches to renew the genetic concepts of plant breeding for organic and LI agriculture by associating knowledge from genomics, quantitative genetics, population genetics and epigenetic approaches to phenotyping under different organic and low-input crop management systems.
* Creation and evaluation of within-crop diversity: new plant populations, variety mixtures and composite cross populations
Given the variability already associated with organic and low input systems, together with the further likely increases due to climate change and resource pressure, novel approaches to local adaptation were needed to deal with the problem while avoiding the high costs that would be involved initially in decentralisation of current approaches to plant breeding. It seemed unlikely that single pedigree lines bred for highly specific characteristics and grown on very large areas in current high input agriculture would be able to cope with the greater site-to-site and annual variation in organic and low input systems. In this context, the objective of SOLIBAM was to develop and use evolutionary variety mixtures (i.e. variety mixtures that are harvested and the seed re-sown each season) and composite cross populations, which can have any number of desired parents .These approaches have been complemented by comparison with landraces, pedigree line varieties and reconstituted variety mixtures (i.e. variety mixtures that are made up from new seed each season) under a range of agro-environmental conditions.
SOLIBAM trials in diversified environments allowed these options to be evaluated at a number of different levels: their relative advantages and disadvantages linked to the degree of exploitable diversity, dynamic adaptation to environmental variation and buffering; the time needed to generate populations and adaptive responses; trait stability and degree of correlation between yield and quality traits; the cost and constraints of maintenance; the willingness of farmers and of the breeding industry to become involved in the selection process, and the regulatory framework. Combinations of such innovative concepts within a context of environmental instability needed to be appraised to establish a more complex approach to crop breeding and management, not only in organic and low input agriculture, but on a wider scale in agriculture as a whole.
* Contribution of conventional plant breeding to obtain specific traits required in organic and low input systems
Conventional plant breeding, integrated with appropriate management systems, has significantly influenced food production, particularly over the last 200 years. During this period, it has been focused largely on improving the productivity of high input systems both in developed and developing countries. For organic and low input systems, the short-term need was to make the simplest and cheapest possible modifications to conventional approaches in order to provide a new variety, or defined selection of existing varieties for use in these types of agriculture; however in the longer term, the need was to initiate the transition, and benchmarking, towards more novel approaches specifically relevant to organic and low-input agriculture. At this level, organic agriculture and low input agriculture can be distinguished from each other. A range of breeding methods used in LI systems (originating from conventional agriculture) are not permitted and/or are against the principles of organic farming. For example, the notion of “plant integrity” is an organic concept and prohibits the use of some biotechnology methods for plant breeding which would be permissible in low-input agriculture? SOLIBAM aimed to evaluate what roles conventional breeding has to play in the development of varieties appropriate for use in future, sustainable agricultural systems, based on the exploitation of wider genetic diversity, the introduction of novel germplasm from gene-banks and other resources into useful genotypes or neo-domestication, and in the generation of new variety mixtures and composite cross populations.
Other objectives were to compare the effectiveness of different breeding strategies under low input and certified organic conditions to optimise breeding for varieties suitable for these farming systems, and to develop a strategy to allow continuous release of new varieties addressing all possible market types for organic and low input farming across a wide range of different agro-climatic conditions in Europe and Sub-Saharan African countries. This would need to be relevant under the present legal framework (UPOV regulations) based on DUS criteria, but also to the development of novel breeding genotypes for future activities.
* The need to integrate breeding with innovative management strategies
A range of important challenges in organic and low input crop production systems (e.g. improved crop nutrient uptake and weed suppression) were unlikely to be overcome by breeding alone. The objective was therefore to fully integrate the use of breeding strategies with management strategies to optimise organic and low input farming. The performance measured by yield and quality depends on good regulation of the functional biodiversity both in fields and also on the whole farm. Thus, the desired variety traits should include adaptation to organic soil fertility management, an efficient root system able to interact with beneficial soil micro-organisms, the ability to suppress weeds, to contribute to soil, crop and seed health, and to give good quality products.
According to the definition by the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (Parris, 2001), the term "agrobiodiversity" includes all three levels of diversity that can be identified in an agroecosystem: (a) diversity at the genetic level (within species); (b) diversity at the species level (between species), and (c) diversity at the habitat/management level. Based on the principles of agroecology , it has been recognised that cropping systems containing a higher level of agrobiodiversity (at all levels) have more potential to be sustainable. SOLIBAM aimed to combine diversity within cropping systems to better understand how it operates and to better manage plant breeding. At the species, habitat and management levels, several options were used to increase diversity in cropping systems in order to evaluate the performance of genotypes hosting a higher level of genetic (within species) diversity while aiming at reducing the use of external inputs. These included the inclusion of cover crops in between two subsequent cash crop cycles, intercropping, i.e. the concurrent cultivation of two or more cash crops that have complementary ecological requirements and the diversification of crop management practices (e.g. tillage, sowing density, crop spatial arrangement). Within the soil itself, a specific focus was to assess arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) interactions with plants because these symbiotic soil fungi provide a number of important ecosystem services including enhancement of plant productivity, disease suppression and the promotion of soil structure. Moreover, AMF are an ideal marker for soil quality.
The efficacy of the population breeding approach has been evaluated through the process itself, estimating the balance between adaptability (over time) and specific adaptation (in space) of populations, in different varietal structures. The objective was to identify the consequences of different breeding strategies and crop management (soil management, seed management, husbandry practices, disease and pest management) on the development of varieties.
* Implementing Participatory Plant Breeding and Management (PPBM) to better answer to specific needs
Although organic production has been increasing, it is still limited by some agronomic and environmental requirements and the lack of organic seeds and varieties available. Participatory plant breeding (PPB) allows scientists and farmers to overcome the limitations of conventional breeding by offering farmers the opportunity to choose and develop, in their own environment, the varieties that best suit their needs and conditions . This means that the centrality of farmers in all breeding processes is crucial to produce varieties that are locally-adapted and easily accepted by end-users, as well as to reduce breeding costs. Within SOLIBAM, participatory plant breeding has been identified as a relevant alternative from economic and agronomic perspectives because it corresponds to a more decentralized experimentation fitting farmers conditions and moreover, the cost is partly borne by the farmers. While such an approach also raises different issues - in particular with respect to coordination and experimental design- these can be addressed and to stimulate new innovations with variety development participatory research was considered in line with the ongoing transformations of the modes for producing knowledge and innovations.
Participatory research within SOLIBAM integrated the development and use of diversity with the scientific development of the overall project. The objective was to develop participatory plant breeding and management (PPBM) strategies to address specific and original demands where crops have evolved under the combined effects of natural and artificial selection, and takes into account the diversified management practices, needs, expectations and traditions of farmers, end-users and consumer preferences. PPBM was expected to become a framework with which to develop new diversity resources and original varieties adapted to low input and organic farming. Using PPBM approaches, crop performance was assessed in the terms needed by diversified stakeholders of the food systems involved.
* Nutritional, end-use and organoleptic qualities to be improved for organic and low input agriculture
Nutritional and end-use quality of genotypes and food products are dependent on several factors, partly genetically determined, and partly determined by the environment and the crop management systems. The needs and expectations of consumers had already been analysed in previous European projects (QLIF, TrueFood). SOLIBAM aimed to characterise organically produced crops with reference to local varieties or use of diversity within crops and throughout systems. A project objective was therefore to quantify the effect of integrating SOLIBAM breeding and management innovations on the organoleptic and nutritional quality of products. The goal was not only to make special products from these genotypes, but also to provide feedback to breeders and farmers about the effect of the different breeding strategies and management systems on quality characteristics.
* Socio-economic and environmental sustainability of the new breeding and management strategies
As SOLIBAM was conceived to provide a set of innovative strategies integrating breeding and crop management with a high level of diversification and methodologies for farmer’s participation, an objective was to test whether or not the SOLIBAM strategies are sustainable and applicable in practice and thus, to assess and evaluate their socio-economic and environmental impacts. In this way, the farmers and farm types, consumer preferences, food supply and legislation related issues likely to influence their adoption could be identified. The willingness of farmers to adopt innovative solutions varies among regions, farming systems (i.e. arable vs vegetable), farm size, cost of innovation, machinery availability, farm labour availability and organisation (i.e.. opportunity cost), and the farmer’s own attitude to entrepreneurial risk. SOLIBAM sought to assess the role of such factors on the probability of adopting organic and low-input agricultural approaches. The assessments included a) environmental life cycle assessment of specific cropping systems using different assessment criteria with special emphasis on the carbon footprint, b) resource use efficiency analysis of local/regional food supply systems with special emphasis on energy flows and the agricultural sector’s role in powering society in a world with increasing energy resource constraints, c) evaluation of socio-economic and legal issues in relation to Plant Breeder’s Rights and farmers seed security and quality, specifically in case of participatory plant breeding, and d) socio-economic evaluation of crop production and food supply ,especially emphasising the financial impacts on farmers and farm types as well as consequences of consumer preferences.
* Policy recommendations
Working with diversity at all levels, SOLIBAM initiated important discussions and highlighted the need to redefine the categories and concepts around which policies have been built for dominant agricultural models based on standardisation of production and markets. Food policies must meet challenges through regional integration, rather than struggling with international competition. A special objective was to attain coherence at local, regional and national levels. Diversity was in conflict with certification based on DUS testing for a number of important European crops. SOLIBAM aimed to offer expertise for policy recommendations within a legal environment for certification and commercialization of ‘varieties’ that do not fit DUS and conservation variety criteria (EC 62/2008), including criteria for Value for Cultivation and Use (VCU) testing especially in relation to food quality. SOLIBAM was also involved in developing policy recommendations for new rules for protection of varieties (IPRs), balancing Plant Breeders Rights (PBRs) and Farmers’ Rights (FRs). This part of the project was particularly relevant since DG SANCO and DG AGRI led negotiations during the two last years regarding plant propagating material for a changing situation in Europe. SOLIBAM results assisted DG SANCO and DG AGRI in discussing opportunities for marketing more diverse cultivars, e.g. local varieties, farmers’ varieties, populations and heterogeneous materials, thereby contributing to the drafting of the new regulations. Moreover, African partners were involved in organising two specific workshops during which results from the European report were be discussed with African officials involved in the process of harmonization of national seed legislations.
* Dissemination
SOLIBAM aimed to set the foundations from which to start changing the then current methodological model, by interfacing science with farmer’s practical knowledge. The SOLIBAM team disseminated information about outcomes, activities and challenges arising from the project in several ways, and adapted the dissemination tools to different target groups (farmers, scientists, policy makers, technicians, consumers, breeders and seed companies). The use of innovative communication tools allowed this to be delivered to a wider range and larger number of people (e.g. through radio and video programmes and a facebook page).
Project Results:
Context, methodological developments and concepts associated to SOLIBAM strategies
WP1 has umbrella specificity which aimed to better describe the context and the stakeholders’ needs and to provide key-concepts elaborated for implementing SOLIBAM strategies. These strategies were specified and developed during the entire project in closed interaction with the activities of all other WPs. At the beginning of the project, one important issue was to share our visions of “low input agriculture” and its connection to organic agriculture (OA). A consensual basic position was the concept of Low Input (LI) agriculture proposed by J.F. Parr et al. (1990), which recovers farming systems that "seek to optimize the management and use of internal production inputs (i.e. on-farm resources)... and to minimize the use of production inputs (i.e. off-farm resources), such as purchased fertilizers and pesticides, wherever and whenever feasible and practicable, to lower production costs, to avoid pollution of surface and groundwater, to reduce pesticide residues in food, to reduce a farmer's overall risk, and to increase both short- and long-term farm profitability." Even if nature of inputs, the way of their limitation may be still discussed, all partners have commonly accepted goals to (1) preserve the environment and biodiversity, and (2) to maintain and improve the farmers’ quality of life (from economic and health points of view), including increasing the profitability on short and long-term. A fundamental difference between the two notions, OA and LI, has also appeared: LI Farming is based on inputs limitation, not their exclusion, using a wide range of methods, both mechanical and technological. The health of ecosystems and natural processes are central in Organic Agriculture, whereas in LI farming systems only limitation counts and puts the economic argument as a central preoccupation, even if the environmental health remains important.
All organic agricultural and low input systems suffer from a lack of plant cultivars adapted to organic production. Within WP1, a study was undertaken to determine which cultivars farmers grow, why they grow them, and the expectations in plant breeding of organic stakeholders. SOLIBAM provided data where existing published information was scarce thanks to questionnaires to describe the various situations in terms of agro-ecological conditions, seed regulation or organic seed sector and to identify the varieties currently grown by organic producers; the reasons of their choice and their expectations for the future. The stakeholders’ expectations and the state of organic seeds was described in several points: (1) Organic seed systems in Europe, (2) African context of the study: seed systems, seed laws and local varieties, (3) Stakeholder expectations in France- State of organic seeds in France, (4) Stakeholder expectations in Italy and in Germany. Globally, results confirmed that the market is a significant factor influencing the choice of seeds and varieties. Another survey had completed the seed market knowledge with the collaboration of partners of a core-organic project, COBRA (Coordinating Organic plant BReeding Activities for DIVErsity) jointly organised an Internet survey launched in September 2013 which had provided an overview of the seed companies’ breeding strategies for the organic sector. From the survey, the main limiting factor to further development of dedicated organic plant breeding programmes for 54% of the companies was economic. Even if the ideal for organic systems would be breeding programmes dedicated to their specific needs, it is not really possible since (i) a lack of return on investment and the absence of a sustainable economic model and (ii) the lack of adapted rules for organic seed registration as a major impediment.
However, as both organic and low inputs agricultures are highly dependent on the pedoclimatic context, some dynamic and creative organic farmers have established locally relevant practices without the direct support of research or development services. During all the duration of the project, WP1 has been collecting and analysing information obtained about the scientific concepts of “organic” varieties and the organic professional context (from farmer to the market). Their initiative have allowed for further improvement, enhancing the application of organic principles of health, ecology, fairness and care.
Another task of WP1 was to precise traits for organic and low-input agriculture adaptation. Their description was based on the experiences of the partners all along the project. In the framework of WP3 to 7, more than 50 trials in 12 countries has been performed to test the relevance of the hypothesis of a beneficial effect of diversity to answer to the questions of professionals and farmers. Even if trials have their own logical dealing with the general context of the WPs, they have been analysed through an overall/global approach and discussed to feed SOLIBAM concepts developed during the project. Innovations have been tested for at least 3 seasons between 2010 and 2014 on the model species of SOLIBAM: wheat, barley, maize, faba beans, common beans, tomato and broccoli. The experiments were organised to enable evaluation of the farming system and crop “performance” according to ten concepts defined to encompass the SOLIBAM objectives: (1) Resilience, (2) Robustness, (3) Functional biodiversity, (4) Yield stability, (5) Adaptability, (6) Intercropping, (7) Sustainability, (8) Evolutionary processes, (9) Organoleptic quality, (10) Participatory research. Each partner has established the list of relevant traits from his trials, precised the scoring method and established the interests of each trait for implementing each concept the framework of all experimentations. It was based on the preliminary list proposed at the beginning of the project from partners experience and literature. Thus, SOLIBAM partners have enriched the way of describing performance, quality and diversity. Measurements of crop performance were based on a large number of traits for all the species, from 20 to 80 according to the species, and can be classified into 6 groups: agronomical traits, morphological description, health/diseases, yield components, quality traits and global traits. For nearly all the species, diversity was described by a combination of phenological traits and morphological characters of the harvested products. Then, thanks to relevant results from field trials and molecular analysis (from WP2 to WP7), we discussed the relative influence of genotype, management and environment on traits. One group of examples (end-use qualities of wheat) showed the complexity of the answers and that sensorial quality of bread may depend on genetic for some traits (taste) and on environment (texture) for other. End-use qualities for bread were much more variable in organic context than in low-input contexts. Stability was often considered as pre-requisite for organic breeding. Experiments on crop management and on experimental evaluation of breeding populations have also pointed the interest to consider first the local adaptation.
Several competences, integrated knowledge from several disciplines and know-how, within the consortium, including genetics, plant breeding, agronomy, ecology, food science, statistics, sociology and economics, have little by little brought complementary knowledge to establish the 10 SOLIBAM concepts. The notion of performance in organic and low input agriculture is recognized to cover a complex reality. The crop performance has been simplified for conventional agriculture and was often reduced to the notion of yield. One important issue of SOLIBAM project was to elaborate concepts and methods so as to describe and to analyse plant and crop performances under broader criteria.
We have illustrated these scientific concepts by SOLIBAM actions with the global aim of designing a sustainable agricultural systems, the recognition of variability and diversity to enhance crop capacity to adapt to new conditions and to increase all forms of performance. They also pointed out how new research organizations such as action-research or participatory research have enhanced efficiency.
Practically, through 19 relevant experiments from WP3 to 6, we have showed how we have organized our investigations and how we have questioned our results to build progressively a global approach based on diversity so as to feed SOLIBAM strategies. These strategies combined many disciplines and values with the aim of increasing system diversity and participatory methods on overall the food system. In addition to developing techniques and assessing quantitative and qualitative data, SOLIBAM has supported transdisciplinary thinking and research-action.
Identification of DNA and epigenetic polymorphisms for monitoring and understand diversity evolution WP2 objective was to assess the evolution of diversity in breeding populations grown and/or selected under different crop management systems and agro-climatic conditions to better understand the responses of these populations to different selection practices, and to develop strategies for maintaining appropriate levels of diversity within the populations / varieties. For that, WP2 partners used three relevant types of molecular markers: (i) neutral or “background” DNA markers, (ii) markers related to epigenetic states, (iii) markers in candidate genes. Further, the objective was to develop original approaches to association studies to be applied within and between the breeding populations and to identify genetic and epigenetic markers associated with phenotypic responses to selection pressures (agro-climatic conditions, crop management systems, selection practices). Phenotypic responses have been assessed considering both specific adaptive traits (such as drought resistance) and more general adaptation features.
During SOLIBAM project, DNA of all bread and durum wheat, barley, maize, broccoli, bean and tomato populations, varieties, landraces or mixtures to be studied has been extracted and their (epi-) genotyping has been realised. The studied populations either were available at the beginning of the project or they have been provided by other SOLIBAM workpackages (WP3, WP5 and WP6) so that WP2 could benefit from their careful phenotyping at different generations together with the assessment of environmental and management effects and selection practices. Genetic and statistical analyses of the diversity data obtained have been completed for bread wheat populations, barley populations, broccoli populations, bean landraces, maize populations and durum wheat landraces. Genotyping data were obtained for tomato populations but the analysis is ongoing. Epigenetic analysis was conducted on broccoli and on bread wheat. Some scientific papers have already been published on these results but in many cases, the manuscripts are being written now, and in some other cases, complementary genetic and statistical analyses of the data are still going on.
The evolution of diversity using the neutral background markers and candidate gene markers (potentially associated to adaptive, agronomic or quality traits) has been studied on breeding populations that have been submitted to: (i) different agro-climatic conditions, (ii) different crop management systems (low-input and organic farming), (iii) different selection practices. We developed general strategies for using molecular markers to analyse the evolution of such populations and to analyse the genetic bases of adaptation. Different methods for the fine analysis of the genetic structure were tested on different species (e.g. bread wheat, durum wheat, barley, maize, bean). Differentiation at the genetic and phenotypic level among spatial and temporal samples was investigated in these species and methods to test for selection were applied to bread wheat and barley and are ongoing for other species. Association between genetic polymorphims and the variation of phenotypic traits (adaptive, agronomic and quality traits) was also tested on these spatial / temporal samples as well as on large collections of landraces and varieties using a method that accounts for the genetic structure (e.g. bread wheat and durum wheat).
In general, WP2 results showed that molecular markers were very efficient to decipher the genetic structure of the different types of varieties and populations studied. Moreover the genetic structures identified strongly reflected the selection / conservation history of the populations. For instance in bread wheat, on farm conservation led to much more genetic diversity maintained within landraces than ex situ conservation and mixtures of landraces or of varieties maintained on farm allowed to increase the available genetic diversity through recombination. Studying broad collections of landraces and varieties showed the strong genetic structure due to geographic origins and selection history and allowed to identify original and sometimes untapped genetic resources that could be of a high value for use in breeding for low-input and organic agriculture (durum wheat, bean). For instance, Ethiopian durum wheat landraces proved to be very different from improved varieties therefore representing an important resource for future durum wheat breeding.
In many cases, populations that were genetically diverse showed significant and rapid differentiation due to cultivation in contrasting agro-climatic conditions or due to farmers’ breeding practices or due to breeding under low-input or organic conditions (e.g. bread wheat, maize, broccoli, barley). One promising type of population is the CCPs (composite cross population) derived from the crosses of parents during one or several generations. For instance in barley, the initial diversity of parents was maintained within the CCP while significant divergent evolution was detected among populations at phenotypic traits and at the genetic level. Mixing varieties or landraces is an alternative to crossing which is simpler to carry out and which can also provide resilience and adaptation. Among six three-way barley mixtures, half were quite stable in composition over time while the other varied more drastically. More work is required to assemble or breed varieties for their stable behaviour as mixture components.
High initial genetic diversity within varieties allowed for larger divergent evolution among populations and therefore for more local adaptation. In general, these diverse populations showed positive response to selection when submitted to breeding for low-input or organic agriculture by farmers or by professional breeders (e.g. bread wheat, maize, barley), while they also remarkably maintained within-population genetic diversity. This is a guarantee of the maintenance of the adaptive potential and the resilience to unpredictable environmental variation. For instance in maize, a Participatory Plant Breeding (PPB) program proved to maintain genetic diversity in the two populations studied respectively over 25 and 15 cycles of mass selection while leading to an increase in agronomic performance of both populations.
Significant genetic and phenotypic differentiation was found among temporal and/or spatial samples of different populations (e.g. bread wheat, barley, maize, broccoli). Some interesting candidate genes have been detected as under selection (e.g. bread wheat, barley), among which some were associated to adaptive traits (e.g. earliness in bread wheat), providing tracks for understanding adaptation to cultural conditions.
GWAS (Genome Wide Association Study) was carried out in a large collection of Ethiopian durum wheat landraces and improved varieties taking into account the underlying genetic structure. It allowed detecting regions associated with adaptive traits and in particular with grain yield and yield stability under stress conditions.
Investigation was also carried out using marker related to the epigenetic state (five MSAP selected primer combinations were used). In the first year, the changes in the methylation state were extremely conserved among different environments but rather varied according to sampling dates. The few differences in the methylation profiles of the same genotype grown in different environments appeared to be due to not significant differences in climate among environments. In the second year there was an increase in methylation of the genome.
In wheat, it was found that two genetically homogeneous varieties (Renan and Haute-Loire) also showed phenotypic divergence. A significant differentiation among populations derived from one of these homogeneous varieties was found at the epigenetic level, which was larger than at the genetic level. Epigenetic variation was correlated with phenotypic variation for plant height but not for heading date. These preliminary results need further analyses and data to confirm the presence of transgenerational epigenetic variation that contributes to population differentiation. Moreover, the methylation pattern (related to the epigenetic state) along VRN-1A, a major gene involved in vernalization response allowed to identify, in two fragments of the intron 1, sites that showed high methylation level and were sensitive to vernalization. In a preliminary study, variation of this pattern was detected at the population level. This needs to be confirmed but these markers will be available for the epigenotyping of relevant populations.
Exploitation of diversity in breeding
Since the beginning of the SOLIBAM project in 2010, the work carried out in WP3 has revolved around developing novel diversity and testing it along with existing diverse germplasm and pureline controls in field trials. This has covered a range of crops (wheat, durum, einkorn, emmer, barley, hanfets, common bean, broccoli, cabbage, tomato and maize) and geographical locations (France, Hungary, UK, Austria, Ethiopia, Italy and Portugal), and included the following partners: INRA, ITAB, Gautier, HAS, ORC, Donau, ICARDA, UNIPG, ESAC, AIAB and Arcoiris). WP3 was divided into three main tasks, with numerous subtasks.
Crops currently available commercially have been bred largely for high-input agriculture resulting in deficiencies when used under the unpredictable and very variable conditions experienced in organic and low-input farming. The overarching objective of WP3 therefore was to develop and exploit greater within-crop diversity so that plants have increased buffering capacity and ability to adapt to their environments. The work within WP3 focused on using different breeding approaches representing different levels of diversity (including landraces, physical mixtures of varieties and composite crops populations (CCPs) and activities were divided into three main tasks. Task 3.1 centred on research designed to introduce novel variation into certain vegetable and cereal crops with the aim of improving their performance in organic and low-input systems. Task 3.2 tested genetically diverse crops represented by mixtures and populations in trials with established pureline varieties across a range of environments in several countries under organic and low-input management. In doing so comprehensive comparisons of performance, particularly reliability of performance, between different levels of diversity could be made. Task 3.3 integrated the best of the population approach with the best of pedigree line breeding. The hypothesis here was that this novel population/variety mixture could lead to an improved performance of both components by combining diversity benefits and high performance in a flexible way. Eleven partners were involved in WP3, which was led by ORC.
In all trials across WP3, partners were able to evaluate the effect of crop diversity on performance aspects such as yield stability and robustness in the face of widely variable environments. The advantages and disadvantages of different levels of diversity have also been elaborated in relation to specific crops, and trials have considered organic, low-input and conventional systems.
Some trials, e.g. broccoli (T3.1.1) and tomato (T3.2.2.8) focused particularly on breeding and selection on the basis of sensorial qualities. Results were very encouraging and for both crops the breeding work will be continuing beyond the lifespan of SOLIBAM. To have achieved robust results following just four years of selection and breeding in a participatory setting is a considerable achievement. For the broccoli, ‘taste pools’ based on genotypic differences were defined such that a group of selections could be identified as having a ‘nutty’ aroma, regardless of the growing environment and this was used as a selection criterion in the later project years. Quality assessment of lines derived from these taste pools was carried out using two different approaches (one by a contract laboratory and one using a more low-cost alternative). The results from both were found to be comparable. Similarly, for tomato trials organoleptic quality assessed by taste panels was successfully used as a selection criterion. CCPs of tomato inspired by cereal breeding approaches were developed and the results from SOLIBAM will enable the setting up of a decentralised breeding programme in 2015 with a strong emphasis of taste quality.
For cereal-based trials, there have been two main initiatives within WP3. The first of these centred on the development of novel variation, i.e. testing a new approach to breeding for changing environments by producing ‘innovative’ CCPs based on inter-crossing different species related to bread wheat to bring together genomes for which there is no known record (i.e. so-called ‘neo-domestication’). As a proof of concept study, this has been successful and a number of novel populations have been developed and multiplied. These will act as a useful source of plant populations for pre-breeding activities. Some comparative trials of these populations were carried out in later project years at different locations, but results were inconclusive so soon after breeding the founding populations. The second main activity for cereals in WP3 has been to compare different levels of diversity in field trials (i.e. landraces, variety mixtures and CCPs). Results vary quite widely, depending on location and there were consistently strong genotype x environment interactions at all sites. A combined analysis of data from all partners involved in this trial indicates that in general the mixtures showed the greatest potential in organic/low-input conditions, but that location seemed to have an effect on which characteristics showed the greatest capacity for adaptation. In trials in Northern France, the UK CCP did better than the local control and similarly in Italy the UK mixture had better stability over time than the other entries; by contrast, in Hungary there was no strong evidence for greater genotypic diversity leading to lower variability. It is likely that the population parents and the extent of variation between growing conditions at trial sites compared to the origin country may be of influence in these outcomes and a greater period to allow for adaptation would help to investigate this further.
The common bean and broccoli trials both aimed to see whether a dedicated organic breeding programme could lead to better adapted lines for such systems and how the level of diversity impacted on performance. Results for the common bean trials were mixed; in France none of the test lines seemed very well adapted to organic conditions compared to the commercial controls whereas in the UK, the success of the crop depended very heavily on year with two out of three years having too short a growing period for beans to dry properly on the plants without rotting. In a combined analysis of UK and Italian data, however, the lines could be divided into two groups (mega-environments) based on their yield performance according to whether they were best suited to 1) warm/dry conditions or 2) wet and cool conditions. In addition to identifying these two so-called ‘mega environments’, lines were also identified that were better adapted to organic or low-input systems. In the broccoli trials, whilst the pure line Santee often yielded the highest of all entries in absolute terms, the landraces and synthetic entries were better able to adapt to different environments (i.e. they were more stable in environments that were less predictable).
Regarding the barley, there was strong evidence from the landrace trials (T3.2.2) of the farmers’ ability to select effectively for their own conditions as the yields of entries selected on the research station were less than the grand mean in most farmer locations, whereas the farmers own selections all performed better. In hanfets trials, differences were observed when their yields were compared against sole wheat or sole barley; they were significantly lower than the wheat alone, but significantly higher than the barley alone. Results from the barley CCP trial (T3.2.3) varied according to site; in Italy, where the CCP had been bred, it had the highest stability of all entries including the pure line controls, whereas in the UK there was no evidence of this effect of diversity and the pureline controls had the highest yields. It may be that there was insufficient time to allow for adaptation in the UK during the trial.
In the ‘best of the best’ trial (T3.3) the effects of mixing the populations with pure lines were subtle. When the years were considered separately, differences were observed between the yields of the mixtures and the CCPs alone in Hungary, but these did not quite reach statistical significance at the 5% level. Similar trends were seen in the UK trials, but were more marked for the mixtures of CCPs with a feed wheat than with a quality wheat. These results suggest that there may be value in further investigation of the concept of mixing population and pure lines, but it would need to be trialled over a longer period of time and a wider range of locations using more pure line varieties before firmer conclusions could be drawn.
Exploitation of diversity in crop management
The aim of WP4 was to test cropping systems based on a high level of diversity at the management level coupled – wherever possible – with use of genetically diverse germplasm. This aim was subdivided into four main research foci, corresponding to the four tasks in WP4: 1. Design, development and testing of innovative cropping systems based on increased diversity at the species and/or variety level where various parameter (such as crop yield, yield stability, organoleptic quality, soil fertility and weed suppression ability) were tested in different agro-climatic conditions (from north Europe to Sub-Saharan Africa) (T4.1). 2. Improve performance of diversified cropping systems through (co)breeding of (a) composite cross of wheat populations and clover used as living mulches and (b) maize and bean intercropping (T4.2). 3. Analysis of the effect of breeding and management diversity on arbuscular-mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) for cereals, legumes and tomato to assess which cropping systems and crop genotype better sustain AMF symbiosis (T4.3). 4. Test whether higher levels of functional diversity at the surrounding habitat (e.g. in field margins, hedgerows or non-cropped habitats) can improve agro ecosystem services, thus leading to higher crop production, control of pests and prevention of weed dissemination (T4.4).
Several experiments have been carried on in various countries of Europe and Africa, adjusting the strategy according to the local cropping systems, habitat types and agro-climatic conditions. The main crops which were tested were wheat, barley, maize, tomato and bean. These crops were experimentally tested in various combinations (according to the local conditions and productive resources and needs) with the following strategies to increase diversity at various levels: (i) intercropping, (ii) crop rotation, (iii) living mulch, (iv) green manure, (v) variety mixtures, (vi) use of diverse germplasm, e.g. composite cross populations (CCP).
The main results of WP4 activities are summarised as follows:
- T4.1: the wheat trials carried out in France by INRA showed that genetically diversified varieties seemed to have better and more stable performance than the modern variety. Regarding bread taste and baking quality, the modern variety was more stable, whereas produce obtained from genetically diversified varieties was more sensitive to environmental conditions (including management). Still in France, ITAB wheat trials showed that higher genetic diversity, either by CCP or by pure line mixtures, increased ground cover, an important trait for weed competition. In Italy, AIAB wheat trials showed that with use of CCP of foreign origin (UK or Hungary) it seems possible to obtain adequate yields, higher than those of the mixture of historical local varieties. Yield stability varied upon the type of CCP. The other wheat trials carried out in Italy by SSSUP & UNIPI showed that even though the pure line Bolero was the best performing one, CCP showed a high buffer capacity for stressful conditions, an interesting starting point for future research. In Germany (TUM trials), the use of a subterranean clover living mulch in wheat seems possible without sensible wheat yield loss in conditions of low or moderate yield potential and weed pressure. The intercropping experiments carried out in Denmark by RISØ-DTU showed that, in annual systems, intercropping of grain legumes and cereals enhanced biomass yields, improved the use of resources due to competitive interactions, and increased yield stability compared to sole crop grain legumes. In perennial systems, productivity in low N input systems can reach satisfactory levels compared to high N input systems using leguminous N2-fixation ability and catch crop effects. The Italian organic maize trials (SSSUP & UNIPI) indicated that crop performance is more likely to rely on species diversity (e.g. inclusion of green manure crops in the cropping system) than on genetic diversity. In fact, maize hybrids always outperformed Hungarian CCP. The Italian tomato experiment (SSSUP & UNIPI) showed that functional identity at different levels (i.e. choosing the right cover crop, tomato genotype, and AMF strain for inoculation at the nursery stage) seems to have a more important role in promoting mycorrhizal symbiosis and organic tomato production than functional composition (i.e. mixing two or more species) or functional diversity (using more genetically heterogeneous varieties). The French (ITAB) tomato trial showed that drip irrigation can be reduced by 15 to 22% in greenhouse and in the open field without reducing crop yield and produce quality. The trials carried out on hanfets (a wheat/barley mixture) in Ethiopia by ICARDA & MU showed that, on average, sole wheat was always the highest yielding treatment (biomass and grain yield), often yielding significantly higher than the average of the three barley as sole crop. With few exceptions, the average biomass and grain yield of the experimental hanfets was slightly but significantly less than the sole wheat, very often higher than the sole barley, while there was no difference between the two ratios. Unfortunately, due to logistic difficulties worsened by enduring local political trouble, the activities foreseen in Mali could not be accomplished.
- T4.2: The German (TUM) trials showed that the associated subterranean clover decreased wheat yield, in most cases by 5-10 %. The interactions between wheat and clover yielded either positive or negative effects, the main of which was a reduction in wheat tillering. The effect on yield depended also on the wheat genotype. Response to competition is a complex trait depending on numerous factors, acting in different developmental stages. The most important of them were crop density, early vigour, period of stem elongation, plant height and leaf habit, but their relative importance varies upon environmental conditions (there were considerable genotype x year interactions). Wheat commercial lines were less adapted to grow in conditions of interspecific competition compared to CCP. Most traits were not only affecting crop behaviour in competition but were also beneficial for yield in general, at least in the tested conditions of relatively low yield potential. Therefore; targeted selection for increased crop performance under these conditions is questionable. No clear results could be extrapolated from the French (INRA) on farm wheat-clover trials due to practical management problems and the consequent interruption of research activities. The Portuguese (ESAC) trials on maize-bean intercropping and co-breeding indicated that some beans varieties performed better in intercropping than others, thereby they could be suggested for use by farmers.
- T4.3: The Italian (SSSUP & UNIPI) trials on organic maize showed that the functional identity of cover crops was fundamental for the maintenance of high levels of soil mycorrhizal potential. In the Italian (SSSUP & UNIPI) tomato experiments it was found that AMF inoculation of plantlets enhanced root colonization of tomato in the field by AMF. The French (INRA) wheat trials showed that wheat populations (e.g. CCP) seemed more promising in promoting wheat roots AMF colonisation. The Swiss (FDEA-ART) trials showed that differences between cover crop treatments were relatively small in terms of AMF root colonization levels. The addition of mycorrhizal fungi as seed coating did not enhance winter wheat yield neither in the field nor in the greenhouse.
- T4.4: According to the results obtained in 2011 and 2012, it has been commonly decided to terminate this task. Preliminary results showed that in Italy (SSSUP & UNIPI) and France (INRA) diversified flower strips/habitats had a positive effect on presence of beneficial arthropods but effects on crop damage and crop yield are less consistent and more difficult to interpret on such a short time scale due to increased pest presence in the strips. It was not clear if the strips acted as a trap crop or as a resource.
Given the wide range of conditions and combinations tested, it is not possible to draw a single “best” solution from the WP4 experiment; but nevertheless there are some emerging trends. A first interesting trend is that generally the positive effects of solutions based on higher genetic diversity seem to emerge more from on-farm trials than from on-station trials. Each trial type has advantages and limitations. On-farm trials are more representative of a real farm situation as technical solutions are often chosen by farmers themselves and hence inevitably vary upon farm and season. This often impedes to find precise cause-effects relationships which, instead, are easier to detect in more controlled on-station trials. These, however, may be far from showing a representative farming picture. It is worthwhile noticing that the positive effects of genetic diversity typically stemmed from those trials that were performed in more than one environment (e.g. 45 farms/year studies in the case of INRA trials on common wheat). This should play for the reliability of those results but does not explain why the same solution (e.g. a given CCP) works in one farm in a given year and not in another farm in the same year or in the same farm in a different year. Co-breeding appeared as an interesting approach to fine tune wheat-subterranean clover intercropping systems to specific pedo-climatic conditions. More genetically diverse germplasm may be prone to a higher degree of colonization from AMF propagules but the effect of this on crop performance and produce quality was not clear cut.
The resources allocated were not enough to draw meaningful conclusions from the trials on habitat diversity effects on crop performance, thus T4.4 was terminated ahead of time.
Comparison of the effectiveness of conventional and organic breeding strategies for organic and low input farming
The aim of WP5 was to develop a strategy allowing continuous release of new varieties addressing all possible market types of organic and low input farming over a wide range of different agro-climatic conditions in Europe and Sub-Saharan African countries. In order to reach this aim, the comparison of the effectiveness of different breeding strategies was carried out in four tasks by 10 SOLIBAM partners using different cereal and vegetable species as model crops.
As a first step, the genetic diversity of the breeding base had to be widened. Therefore, four partners carried out the screening and regeneration of different landraces, old varieties, gene bank accessions of Triticum genotypes (e.g. bread wheat, durum wheat, emmer and einkorn) and barley genotypes, as model species of self-pollinating crops. During this task, a novel characterisation strategy, the Focused Identification of Germplasm Strategy (FIGS) was also used by ICARDA. In addition, maize, faba bean, broccoli and common bean genotypes, as the model species of (partially) open pollinated crops were also screened and regenerated by eight partners, who also utilized the local knowledge, for example in the case of Portuguese maize genotypes. Partners used standard characterisation parameters that are relevant to the organic or low input farming, and examined some new ones that could help in the selection for more complex traits, like adaptability under organic growing conditions (link to WP1).
Altogether 1272 Triticum genotypes (265 bread wheat, 445 durum wheat, 135 emmer, 90 einkorn and 337 other wheat wild relatives) and 205 barley genotypes were examined and regenerated. The best adapted einkorn, emmer and winter durum genotypes were used as parents in interspecific crosses to artificially widen the genetic diversity of the wheat breeding base with the development of novel populations. In addition, 55 maize, 12 faba bean and 126 broccoli genotypes were also screened and regenerated. Moreover, 17 common bean lines were also evaluated by 2 partners. Composite cross populations (CCP) were also developed from durum (4 parents), einkorn (7 parents), emmer (3 parents), barley (48 parents) and broccoli (8 parents), while the selected lines of the maize landraces were used in the development of novel hybrid populations and all these populations were fed into the evolutionary breeding trials (link to WP3). Selected landraces with excellent performance and quality were implemented into participatory breeding (link to WP6). The identified new sources and breeding lines were selected as initial populations of early stage selection trials in WP5. This activity helped to widen the accessible genetic diversity of these crops, and gave the possibility to reintroduce traditional landraces to their original place of cultivation, and to introduce new important characters/traits into the given crop by breeders.
The optimisation of the selection systems paid special attention to early selection practices under low input and organic growing conditions using the high input conventional condition as a control (regarding wheat and maize). This action provided the basis to set up breeding methods for organic/low input variety production. Nine partners examined the effectiveness of early stage selection on ten model species (maize, faba bean, broccoli, tomato, common bean, barley and Triticum species) under organic and low input conventional growing conditions. Initial progenies were originated from early generations of inter- or intraspecific crosses, that were partly originated from the germplasm screening trials. In addition, composite cross populations (CCP) were also used as breeding pools for selection. After the first years of parallel selection, full comparative trials were established in the last year to examine the effects of the different selection sites and practices on the performance of the breeding lines.
The early development of pure lines of different crop species under different management conditions was carried out applying high selection pressure, and the responses of different types of crosses (e.g. elite × elite, elite × landrace, etc.) and sites of selection (organic, low input conventional), in terms of the production of new breeding lines were assessed. In most cases selection had started in F2 generation using different selection methods, depending on the species. Partners had worked with practical examples using different self-pollinating (e.g. wheat), partially outcrossing (faba bean) and open pollinated (e.g. maize) species and thus could provide new tools for plant breeders and researchers involved in organic or low input breeding. The hypothesis that breeding lines are supposed to have lower variability in that environment where they were selected was proven through the examples of wheat and maize, while the various selection methods applied were also proved to have different outcome in the case of faba bean and wheat.
It was also demonstrated that a published molecular marker could be used in segregating organic wheat breeding population bred for bunt resistance resulted in the selection of one breeding line that has already entered the official organic VCU test in Austria. This result has also pointed out the innovative utilization of a modern breeding technique (marker assisted selection) in organic breeding.
In parallel with the selection trials, an international bread wheat trial (ring test) was also established by 3 partners in order to compare already existing varieties having different breeding origin. The comparison of such developed lines in a ring test all over Europe could give indications of the need for certified organic breeding to produce organic varieties based on current variety testing regulations for the organic farmers. In addition, a secondary ring test on durum wheat performed by 4 partners was aimed to improve the selection criteria of breeding lines for organic agriculture.
The bread wheat ring test resulted in the identification of traits sensitive to management system, which could be later separated according to their suggested selecting environments and could make the organic wheat breeding economically more effective. Based on the results, heading date, sensitivity to leaf rust and powdery mildew showed relatively high heritability, making it reasonable to select them for organic agriculture in a conventional field. However, it is also suggested to select for grain yield, test weight, leaf-inclination and vigorous growth at a later stage in the target environment, the organic field. Based on the results, the distinctness of the different breeding origins (organic, conventional and combined) was also proved, which could led us to the conclusion that the organic sector should possess a specific breeding activity, indeed. In addition, seed quality, winter hardiness, protein content and N use efficiency were found to be the most important for the developing organic durum wheat breeding.
The examination of the possible differences in variety maintenance breeding and post-harvest technology was carried out using different cereals (einkorn, emmer, bread wheat CCP) and vegetable species (tomato) as model crops. Moreover, the issue of farm saved seed was also examined using einkorn as a model crop, which work could help to clear the uncertainty of this field. Because, this is important from many aspects (e.g. germinating ability, weed infection and yielding ability), and from such example where several bread wheat trials in SOLIBAM had common bunt infection and severe concern for the spread of bunt diseases had arisen when using farm saved seeds, which could be effectively prevented using controlled certified organic seeds. Positive effect of the growing site (organic or conventional low input) was also highlighted in the case of variety maintenance of cereals, where yield stability maintained in organic field was higher under organic growing conditions. The vegetable model crop, tomato showed this effect regarding germination ability and thousand kernel weight. In addition, farm saved seed of the model crop, einkorn was found to be less effective (both from agronomical and economical points of view) than those that were grown in a separate field for sowing seed purposes (on-farm and certified seeds). Based on the post-harvest technology trials, some extra costs were revealed in organic tomato seed production (organic seed facilities, organic certification, training), but no agronomic difference was found between organic and conventional practices. However, in the case of bread wheat, new breeding techniques could be suggested to be applied in breeding (especially in organic breeding of CCPs), where the basic selection could target the larger sowing seed achieved with post-harvest technologies that could affect the grain yield (so as germinating ability, disease resistance and early maturing) positively in the following generations.
Participatory plant breeding and management
The objective of WP6 was to develop participatory plant breeding (PPB) and management (PPM) strategies. PPB emerged to answer the specific and original demand from marginal areas or small scale agriculture of developing countries, Europe and Africa. Within SOLIBAM, we have enlarged participatory plant breeding and management (PPBM) to organic and low input agricultures. PPBM is a sustainable strategy to reverse the tendency of modern agriculture towards uniformity, a tendency which appears increasingly contradictory with the need to cope with climate change. Several examples of successful PPB programs exist in various countries, in various socioeconomic contexts and with various crops; SOLIBAM further developed a PPB concept in WP6, based on: a) the establishment of a phenotype recording system in groups of farms using different combinations of genotypes and production systems, and b) data input from farmer and supply chain stakeholders (advisors, customers) and design of breeding schemes for contrasting organic and ‘low input’ systems in a number of crops including cereals, legumes and horticultural crops. In this context SOLIBAM’s objective is to respond to the need of a shift to more sustainable modes of agricultural production with a number of alternative solutions which, within WP6, are the development of PPB and evolutionary plant breeding (EPB) approaches to answer the adaptation bottlenecks of organic and low-input agriculture, and the needs of niche agriculture and of small scale farming in Europe and Africa. Then basic concept of PPB is that farmers, users and researchers are full partners in the development of new methodologies and technological innovations, with full decision-making power in planning, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation.
An inventory of PPB and PPM projects (task6.1) was conducted during 2011 with the contribution of all the partners with activities related to PPB and/or to PPM. 22 PPBM cases were analysed and highlighted the innovative strategies revealed by the range of experiences described. A report on “Analysis of Major Participatory Plant Breeding Experiences Worldwide” was posted on the SOLIBAM website. Farmers groups were formed or strengthened in countries involved SOLIBAM, namely Syria, Ethiopia, Italy, Portugal and France. New PPB networks were developed for the model crops in two tasks. Within the first one (task 6.2) several farmers’ networks engaged in PPB for improving organoleptic qualities were managed in France and Italy on several species, wheat, broccoli and tomato, for maize in France (traditional and new recipes) and in Portugal for broa, a traditional maize bread, and for barley in Ethiopia for injera, a traditional bread. For wheat, broccoli and tomato species, a PhD at INRA, has developed participatory evaluation of organoleptic qualities in relation with WP7. Participatory sensory evaluation methodologies refined together with farmers in all countries. The second one (task 6.3) aimed to study evolution of the diversity within varieties deriving from PPB for organic and low input agricultures. In France, several breeding strategies were tested for diversity with farmers so as to create new wheat populations. In Italy the process started with no institutional support while in Portugal two different approaches have been used with farmers to manage creation and conservation of genetic diversity of maize and beans. Several farm days were conducted within both tasks to share experiences on on-farm conservation and selection projects handled by farmers, and to share knowledge between the national and international stakeholders (researchers, farmers and others).
New questions were raised by farmers on how to improve quality in on-farm breeding and methodological tools were explored to address them. For maize and wheat, we investigated research organisation to better manage breeding for quality on farm, for broccoli and tomato, the question was how to create diversified breeding populations for quality. Collaborations between France and Portugal were developed at all levels for maize for human consumption integrated nutritional, end-used and sensorial qualities. Specific consumers’ sensory descriptors have been developed for broa in Portugal and traditional dishes in France. These data were correlated with instrumental variables to select quality parameters easier to measure for improving quality maize. In France, methodologies were developed to describe maize populations food quality from milling to cooking. New recipes were developed thanks to genetic diversity and consumers were exposed to a diversity of maize-based dishes. One result is a book of recipes with professional cookers and chefs. For bread wheat, INRA Rennes conducted participatory organoleptic tests to observe genotype X environment interactions at product (bread) level and to help farmers to include quality assessment into PPB. Sensory evaluation methods were developed in wheat by INRA Rennes and used to analyse genotype x “baking practices” x environment interactions. The results of the sensory tests on wheat using the Napping® method, have shown the effect of varieties on taste and highlighted the effect of the environment on texture. Integrating consumers in sensory evaluation of maize and wheat has given reliable results and eased the communication on sensory properties of population varieties. SOLIBAM initiated new breeding projects in collaboration with professional breeders for two species, broccoli and tomato, in order to improve sensorial quality of organic varieties (professional and farmers’ ones). During SOLIBAM project, only the pre-breeding step had been performed. A broccoli Composite Cross Population (CCP) was assembled from which two different breeding strategies were applied. Sensory evaluation has been also introduced in the PPB program on broccoli. Samples characterized by “good” flavour have been bulked in order to create pools of flavour.
Besides quality improvement in WP6, PPBM aimed at creating and studying evolution and impact diversity for most of the model species in farmers networks in France, Portugal, Ethiopia and Italy. The PPB network in Portugal was considerably expanded, the diversity in farmers’ hands was explored, diallel crosses were made, and evaluation of the newly obtained maize hybrids was conducted in farmers’ fields. Three maize populations were distributed to different farmers to study their evolution under farmers’ fields in Portugal. The study of the genetic evolution of a maize CCP (SinPre) (12 populations intercrossed in 2009) selected by farmers’ mass selection for two to three years (2011, 2012 and 2013) in two different locations was completed. The analysis of the evolution of diversity on a long term PPB selection of two maize populations (Amiúdo and Castro Verde) was finalized and experiments to measure the effects of mass selection by farmers to identify the optimal selection procedures (generation for selection, intensity of within and among populations selection, etc...) according to the environment and marketing context, were conducted on a number of crops. In Ethiopia, a barley evolutionary population was assembled and let evolve for two cropping seasons in farmers’ fields. In October 2013, 32 farmers performed selection in the barley evolutionary population grown in four locations in Ethiopia. In 2014, just before the end of the project, the selected spikes were multiplied to have sufficient seed for the future PPB trials. Participatory variety selection was concluded in Ethiopia and a new set of participatory breeding trials established. In these trials several new methodologies were incorporated. A participatory project was conducted on wheat and legumes in which farmers observed trials planted in their own farms in 2013 and choose the varieties to be sown again in 2014, preparing as well some mixtures. Meetings were organized in order to discuss the development of the project. Two barley varieties (Fetina and Hirtiti) were released in Ethiopia as a result of a PVS program and promising lines were identified in the same country in the PPP program which started with the SOLIBAM project. The basic principles of PPB and the technical details of the design of the experiments and the associated statistical analysis, were published in a Technical Manual titled “Plant Breeding with Farmers”. It has been shown that, based on selection theory, PPB is more efficient than conventional plant breeding.
Diversity within soft wheat were studied in France through the response to farmers’ mass selection in the early generation (F2) of a wheat PPB project assessed by INRA UMR-GV Le Moulon using populations developed in 2005 as a joint initiative of one farmer and researchers from INRA who crossed different wheat landraces and more recent varieties of interest. An experiment was set up to analyse the response at the genetic and phenotypic level of populations derived from a sub-sample of the initial crosses. Populations correspond to different types of parents, and derive from selection in different farms by different farmers. Divergent populations were obtained from each cross after only 2 or 3 generations of on farm selection, indicating possible adaptation to specific local conditions. A Bayesian model has been developed specifically designed to analyse the unbalanced data sets obtained in PPB experiments. A database has also been developed to store, organize and prepare all types of data and information coming from the PPB program. These tools as well as the collective organization allow improving farmers’ autonomy and ability to manage agro biodiversity on farm. Another group of farmers in France had initiated varieties and population evaluation trials to experiment better wheat x legumes association. Quality of seed within PPB activity was studied on beans model. Trials on common beans were conducted by INRA Rennes at three locations in France with populations of four landraces with the objective of linking the health of bean plants and seeds, the disease symptoms appearing on plants during crop growth and the genetic diversity of populations and at identifying useful variables to be analysed. Surveys about health concepts were conducted to elicit the opinion of all practitioners of the seed and food systems.
In Italy, AIAB attempted to start a PPB program, first by organizing farmers’ meetings with the participation of technical staff and scientists, and then by starting PPB programs with maize and tomato, and EPB with barley, durum wheat and bread wheat. A segregating population of tomato was successfully established, and the evolutionary populations of durum and bread wheat and of barley developed at ICARDA were distributed to farmers. By 2014 these populations were grown in 14 Italian regions.
Effect of and interaction between crop genotypes and management innovations on crop nutritional, organoleptic and end-use quality
Organoleptic, nutritional and end-use properties of the cereal, vegetable and legume breeding lines and populations developed under WP3-6 were studied in the frame of WP7 taking into consideration the global and local needs and expectations of the consumers. Properties were studied on plants, growing at different agro-climatic conditions using different breeding techniques and crop management systems. Hedonic tests with large panel of consumers as well as sensory analysis with trained juries were carried out in order to select the preferred organic genotypes by consumers and to evaluate the usefulness of the sensorial properties for breeding purposes. The nutritional properties, such as antioxidant or dietary fiber content were also studied in order to evaluate the health related effects of the organically bred lines. At the same time the impact of the genotype, environment, field management and breeding strategy were studied on the end-use quality (bread making, pasta making etc.) of the lines, especially taking into consideration the requirements of the production of special local products. Results will finally support the breeders, the agronomists, the processing industry and last but not least the consumers.
In the frame of this work, first of all, a methodology was developed in order to integrate organoleptic quality criteria in breeding programs of tomatoes, broccoli and bread. This tasting guide recommend four different tests, it explains how to prepare samples and how to analyse the results. In order to create new type population, a large set of cereal and vegetable genotype have been screened for their agronomical performance and their sensory quality. Results showed that it might be possible to breed for quality, using sensory analysis tools in order to take into account the complexity of the quality traits. Further investigations are needed, like the determination of the heritability of such traits in order to valid this breeding strategy. In case of maize, the good correlation of the instrumental with the sensorial evaluation allowed sorting out the most important quality components valued by consumers (texture and colour) and easier to measure approaches have been set up to select for improved quality maize, especially on participatory breeding programs.
The effect of the GxExM was also studied in order to compare organic and ‘low-input’ farming conditions. Strong effect of the year and genotype was found on the compositional and end-use quality traits both in case of wheat and durum. BFOA breeding method was found to be the most effective for breeding wheat varieties with stable quality under organic farming and also under ‘low-input’ conditions. Standard deviation of the gluten quality characters (such as the gluten spread, the gluten index and dough stability) characterized the differences of the breeding strategies. Physical properties of the seed (test weight, thousand kernel weight), the falling number and the Zeleny sedimentation characterized the differences of the different managements in case of wheat, while for durum, the protein and gluten content were the most determinant properties. The most stable wheat varieties at organic conditions were identified. These conventionally bred varieties could be suggested for farmers for organic farming purposes.
Extraction and analytical methods were adapted and optimized to study the aroma and flavour compounds of maize and ‘broa’, and carotenoids, tocopherols and phenolic compounds of bean. Multivariate analysis allowed grouping the common bean accessions into 4 clusters differing significantly in their phenolic composition. Considering the protective effects of phenolic compounds in human health, common bean genotypes containing an increased level of bioactive components in the flour, could contribute to the overall improvement of the human diet. Portuguese maize was also rich in phenolic compounds particularly in hydroxycinnamic acids, and it was found that the total soluble phenolic compounds were not influenced by the intercropping system. After processing, the maize bread revealed higher content of phenolic compounds than the corresponding maize flour extracts. Similar health related effects could be assigned to some composite cross wheat population developed in SOLIBAM, in which outstanding dietary fiber (arabinoxylan) content were assessed.
Environmental, economic and social sustainability assessment
The overall aim of WP8 has been to evaluate the sustainability of SOLIBAM strategies, i.e. innovative farming and food distribution strategies where products and processes are based on PPBM and on diversity at all levels. We have collected detailed inventory data based on interviews and statistical data for the period 2008-2010 from seven selected relatively autonomous and low-input farms in France, UK, Portugal and Italy. These farms aimed to reduce inputs, consider nutrient cycling and grow a diversity of crops and varieties. Furthermore, they focused on supporting local food supply systems and were thus candidates for stepping stones in what could be a potential path towards a system applying the SOLIBAM strategies. We designated these systems ‘paradigmatic cases’ since they represent a fundamentally different way of producing and distributing food compared to the dominating practices which are conventional agricultural production and supermarket mass distribution.
More than twenty indicators, based on Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), emergy assessment and economic analysis, have been applied i) to learn about central phenomena in these innovative food supply systems, ii) to compare these systems to highlight where they could be improved to better fulfil the expectations of systems working according to the SOLIBAM strategies and iii) to point out challenges for sustainability assessment in these highly complex systems. Different scenarios aimed at improving the sustainability of selected case studies have been evaluated and the case systems have been benchmarked against standard organic or conventional practice. New indicators have been developed and combined with well-known indicators to perform this task. In this respect it is important to stress that no indicator or set of indicators can be completely adequate and useful in all contexts. The chosen indicators varied to a large extent among the systems and particular cases were good in some respects and less good in others. This demonstrates that all systems have the possibility to continue their development towards more sustainable food production and distribution taking into account the trade-offs that exist between the different practices. The results further highlight the importance of individual management decisions and suggest that there could be a significant potential for improvement of these paradigmatic systems.
We developed a number of innovative modelling tools: i) Network analyses to unravel the interaction of farmers and factors influencing their actions; ii) Quantitative measures of autonomy accounting for the use of freely available natural resources as well as the use of resources from the society also distinguishing between local and non-local resources; iii) Integrative design of farming systems based on environmental life cycle assessments in collaboration between scientists and farmers. The three tools apply a broad spectrum of methods from environmental and socio-economic sustainability assessment and have been developed in a multidisciplinary collaboration of researchers and farmers. Using these tools it was possible to identify common themes and farm practices being adopted on the farms assessed and to determine how these have affected environmental and business performance as well as resource use over time. This analysis included both pre- and post-farm gate impacts, allowing for a complete and detailed analysis of the entire supply chain associated with each of the systems.
The main focus of the LCA analysis was put on bread and vegetables. The following environmental impact categories were analysed: non-renewable energy demand (fossil and nuclear energy), global warming potential over 100 years, ozone formation potential (summer smog), eutrophication potential to aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, acidification potential according to EDIP2003, terrestrial and aquatic ecotoxicity potentials, human toxicity potential following the CML01 method. The environmental impacts of the case studies were compared with reference to systems with intensive conventional farming coupled to a supermarket distribution system or organic high-input systems. The results showed a high variability of the environmental impacts between the case study farms, indicating that a large potential for optimization exists. In some cases the diversified low-input farms (case studies) had similar or lower impacts than the conventional or organic high-input references. In other cases their impacts were higher. In a second step, improvement scenarios were developed in discussion with the two concerned farmers. The improvement scenarios were assessed in order to determine the improvement potentials for the environmental impacts. The results showed that a considerable reduction of up to 50% was possible for some impacts and systems with a combination of several improvement measures.
The resource use analysis was based on emergy indicators accounting for all available energy used directly or indirectly to make the products of the farm. Specific focus has been put on renewability (the fraction of energy and material flows directly provided by the sun, the tide or geothermal heat) and geographical origin of inputs. On the basis of that information, it was possible to assess how a farm is supported by local energy and material flows and how much it depends on external inputs, i.e. from the global economy. For the food supply systems studied the use of renewable resources constituted between 10% and 53% leaving much room for improvement. In this respect it is important to notice that use of fossil fuels for machinery and some processing is unavoidable. Even a very self-sufficient farm only importing fossil fuels and machinery will need a certain amount of non-renewable inputs. Also gasoline used by customers adds to the non-renewable use in the supply chain. In some cases the fraction of non-renewable inputs per food energy unit produced may be low if high inputs of non-renewable inputs (fossil fuels and fertilizers) results in higher yields. However, in future, resource depletion may prohibit the use of non-renewable energy in agriculture, and the food supply system would need to rely on renewable resources. The use of contract machinery is an important factor reducing renewable farm input. The flow of non-local inputs varied between 44-90% also showing a large variability and potential for improvements. The emergy assessment’s unified measure of local versus imported and renewable versus non-renewable resources adds an extra insight into sustainability assessment that can potentially lead to new suggestions for actions to improve sustainability.
For the case from UK (a small-scale low-input organic vegetable supply system) the two methodologies, emergy accounting and LCA, were combined. The system consisted of a farm with high crop diversity and a related box-scheme distribution system. The empirical data from this case system was compared to two modelled organic food supply systems representing high- and low-yielding practices for organic vegetable production. Furthermore, these systems were embedded in a supermarket distribution system and they provided the same amount of comparable vegetables at the consumers’ door as the case system. The on-farm resource use emergy-wise was similar for the case system and the high-yielding model system and higher for the low-yielding model system. The distribution phase of the case system was at least three times as resource efficient as the modelled system and had substantially less environmental impacts when assessed using LCA. The three systems ranked differently for emissions with the high-yielding model system being the worst for terrestrial ecotoxicity and the case system the worst for global warming potential. As a consequence of being embedded in an industrial economy, about 90% of resources were used for supporting labour and service.
Based on the economic analysis, a number of strategies were suggested to benefit socio-economic sustainability at system level. These include i) continuous diversification of products supplied (e.g. a mix of different vegetable crops, meat, flour types, bread, and dairy products), ii) distribution strategies (e.g. farm shops, farmers’ markets, box schemes, restaurants and cafes, collection points for consumers and retail), iii) creating different activities to carry out at the farm (e.g. field operations, processing grain and dairy products, packaging vegetables, transporting products, providing seminars and guided enterprise visits in times of scarce work in the fields), and iv) year round work for full-time employees (including e.g. fair payments, good social environment and opportunities for personal development).
With the aim of identifying farm types most likely to adopt the SOLIBAM strategies, survey data were collected from 352 Italian and Portuguese certified organic farmers. A probabilistic model showed that women and farmers longest engaged in organic farming are more likely to adopt the sustainable practices defined by SOLIBAM. It also indicate that farm size, landownership, the existence of some types of complementary activities and the sources of information used by farmers affect the adoption of such strategies. Further, a case study of farmers’ motivations to participate in PPB programs enlightened the major economic, scientific and regulatory bottlenecks to organic plant breeding.
SOLIBAM worked with the COBRA project and ECO-PB to gain an overview of EU seed companies’ breeding strategies for the organic sector and their viewpoints about organic seed production (the seed company survey). The accumulated data from WP3 in particular, but also WP 2, 4, 5, 6 and 7, allowed us to make presentations, first to DG SANCO, AGRI and ENV and then, in more detail, to the DG SANCO Standing Committee on Seeds. Two workshops in Africa presented: i) the European situation where the seed law is being revised at a time when participatory plant breeding is beginning to be implemented by public research networks with farmers and ii) the conclusions of the last session of the Governing Body of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) in Oman in 2013 about the implementation of Article 6 on the sustainable use of plant genetic resources and its links with Article 9 on Farmers' Rights and Article 5 on conservation. Further, the situation regarding implementation of the ITPGRFA in West and East Africa in the light of emerging challenges was discussed as well as issues and opportunities related to the implementation of a diversified local seed system based on participatory innovation as a way to reduce vulnerability, to climate change and other emerging threats for smallholder farmers’ communities.
Dissemination, training and technology transfer
The objectives of WP9 were to:
1. Disseminate information about SOLIBAM project, outcomes, activities and challenges;
2. Adapt the dissemination tools to different target groups (farmers, scientists, policy makers, technicians, consumers, breeders and seed companies);
3. Publish a series of document (e.g. Newsletters, Booklets, Proceedings) based on the outcomes of SOLIBAM;
4. Use innovative communication tools in order to arrive to more large number of people (e.g. radio and video programmes and facebook page).
All the objectives have been achieved during the project, thanks to the work of all the partners according to their capacities and experiences. For example, some partners have been more able to disseminate to the scientific communities, while others have been more in touch with farmers and consumers through farm days and participatory evaluation sessions. The SOLIBAM partnership composed of different actors (science bodies, farmers’ organisations, technical centres, private companies) allowed to talk with different people and to reach many target groups and stakeholders.
The SOLIBAM consortium achieved the main result of being known in Europe as the most important player as regards organic and low input integrated breeding and management. Thanks to the participation of the partners to many events, to the many articles and papers submitted, to the targeted and differentiated communication activities (e.g. farmdays, newsletters, radio programmes, videos, booklets, web site and facebook page), to the meetings with experts and policy makers, SOLIBAM has become a logo well known not only in the scientific communities but also amongst farmers, citizens and policymakers. More than 204 poster or articles were presented to scientific events and 84 farm days were organised by the partners.
The three Congresses organised jointly with other scientific networks (e.g. ECOPB group or COBRA project) guaranteed a thorough exchange of experiences between different scientific expertise and competences towards a very transdisciplinary work. In particular the participation of keynote speakers, invited by the Congress Scientific Committees, allowed to enlarge the competences of the SOLIBAM partnership to disciplines that were not include in the project, enriching the discussion within SOLIBAM partners. The SOLIBAM Scientific Congresses were jointly organised with other scientific networks or projects allowing to share SOLIBAM visions and strategies with other scientific communities improving the transdisciplinary approach of the project and giving more reliability to the Policy recommendations published at the end of the project.
The organisation of the 2 meetings in Africa (Senegal and Ethiopia) and the participation to the last two Organic World Congresses (2011 Korea and 2014 Turkey) allowed the SOLIBAM consortium to communicate not only to European actors but also to private and public bodies all around the world, particularly spreading SOLIBAM outcomes in World Organic Communities through the International Federation of Organic Movements (IFOAM). The meetings jointly organised with Bioversity International and the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture allowed to enlarge our communication activities to the International Agricultural Research Centers (IARCs) and to the international communities working on conservation of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture.
Nine booklets targeted to different groups were published during the project, covering all the aspects of the project (list lelow). Two of them (the number 5 and 9) presented the final SOLIBAM recommendations based on the work and experiments performed in all the work packages.
List of SOLIBAM booklets:
1- “Traits and strategies for crops with high quality and yield stability in organic and LI systems Scientists” – Target: Technicians – Languages: English – Diffusion: Web
2- “Implementing research for Diversity, Participatory Innovation and Locality/Terroir” – Target: Layman people, Farmers, Technicians – Languages: English – Diffusion: Web
3- “10 SOLIBAM key concepts – Cultivating diversity” – Target: Layman people, Farmers, Technicians – Languages: English, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, German – Diffusion: Printed copies Web
4- “10 SOLIBAM Key Innovations – Cultivating diversity” – Target: Layman people, Farmers, Technicians – Languages: English, Italian, French – Diffusion: Printed copies, Web
5- “Policy recommendations for legal aspects of seed certification and protection of Plant Breeders’ Rights and Farmers’ Rights” – Target: Policy makers, Scientists, Technicians, Farmers – Languages: English – Diffusion: Web
6- “Tasting guide: tools to integrate organoleptic quality criteria in breeding programs” – Target: Scientists, Technicians, Farmers – Languages: English, French Printed copies, Web
7- “Molecular tools for cultivating diversity” – Target: Scientists, Technicians, Farmers – Languages: English – Diffusion: Web
8- “Plant breeding with farmers: a technical manual” – Target: Scientists, Technicians, Farmers – Languages: English – Diffusion: Printed copies Web
9- “Policy recommendations to sustain diversity strategies within food systems” – Target: Policy makers, Scientists, Technicians, Farmers – Languages: English – Diffusion: Printed copies, Web
SOLIBAM used particularly the videos for disseminating its outcomes and challenges through the social networks (Facebook and Vimeo). A final video of 15 minutes presenting the main SOLIBAM results was produced for the Final Congress in Nantes (July 2014). A complete list of all the videos is showed in the following list :
The list of SOLIBAM videos
1- “SOLIBAM - Agricultural biodiversity in Europe and Africa from tradition to innovation” – Diffusion: Web + usb key
2- “Let's cultivate diversity 2013” – Diffusion: Web
3- “Shaping the future of agriculture - SOLIBAM Congress 2012” – Diffusion: Web
4- “Shaping the future of agriculture: the point of view of Devra Jarvis from the 2012” SOLIBAM Congress – Diffusion: Web
5- “An overview of SOLIBAM” – Diffusion: Web
6- “An overview about PPB from Salvatore Ceccarelli” – Diffusion: Web
Potential Impact:
Organic and low input agricultures represent complex agricultural systems. SOLIBAM had the goal of producing knowledge relevant to multiple stakeholders, bringing to farmers and consumers new tools, and renewing socio-economic choices. The work carried out has not brought a specific methodology but several strategies to expand and support SOLIBAM concepts for cultivating diversity. The synthesis of results from several WPs has reinforced the demonstration dimension of how transdiciplinarity might be implemented for organic and low input agriculture development.
Context, methodological developments and concepts associated to SOLIBAM strategies
Within its umbrella activities, WP1 organised the collection of a large amount of information and its synthesis which are disseminated throughout booklets, conferences and workshops. The information covered several aspects of context, methods, scientific results, and then, policy recommendations.
Within WP1, SOLIBAM has collected diversified of agro-ecological innovations which are at the core of its strategies throughout the project:
- new approaches to plant breeding and development which simultaneously consider diversity and quality, performance and stability, co-breeding for intercropping, or crop-pollinator interactions;
- new food products with improved quality properties;
- new tools for participatory plant breeding and management (PPBM) in which farmers, researchers and other stakeholders designed together: 1) new breeding methods for decentralized programmes, 2) tools for resource and trial management, and for the statistical analysis of results, 3) integrating methodologies to better select for tasty products;
- social innovation and collective action for decentralised and participatory research;
- new modelling tools to better understand and assess resilience, viability and sustainability of farms;
- new propositions for policy makers so as to adapt seed regulations to accommodate diverse genetic resources.
A reflexive approach was undertaken by SOLIBAM partners about SOLIBAM strategies: based on competences of our multidisciplinary teams and on the citizen responsibilities of everybody within the consortium, we synthesized strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT methodology) for the implementation of the SOLIBAM strategies.
Among strengths, partners stressed the interest of diversity and synergy within diverse represented disciplines and diversity of studied biological systems within our project to study food chain supply. Networking and participatory involvement has increased trust in SOLIBAM strategies for a better response to needs and more sustainable, to promote long term food security and sovereignty and to increase farmers autonomy / self-sufficiency. Finally, SOLIBAM strategies aimed to empower all the actors of the food supply chain, with more interaction between farmers and researchers, using traditional knowledge with an alternative vision for agriculture. The weaknesses may appear with the difficulties to implement completely the strategy of the project due to time and money limitations and the lack a interdisciplinary training. The researches could seem complex to handle with farmers, and not to provide enough proof to farmers or stakeholders. For breeders, the reflection is not sufficient on how to maintain diversity and protect results, with a too small market.
The opportunities are found in the market supports and the better acceptance by society since the participation of stakeholders, the integration of traditional knowledge, the limitation of GMO. Facing the global crisis of economy, conventional farmers ask for alternatives which support employment, limit energy utilisation, re-enforce cultivated diversity. The threats have been notified on regulation aspects since no seed regulation has been adapted until now with the resistance of industrial lobbies and the concentration of seed sector. The lack of awareness of public about the loss of diversity within crops, the low commitment of scientists for participatory research within institutional and technical lock-in may constitute difficulties to get research results in short time.
At the end of the project, the analysis of SOLIBAM processes and results was enlarged and enriched during the Final International SOLIBAM Congress 7-9 July in Nantes (France) where strengths and opportunities were largely supported by other international researchers and stakeholders, while identified weakness and threats will be mitigated by dissemination activities and implementation of SOLIBAM policy recommendations.
Our results call for a revision of seed regulation to encourage professional breeders to better exploit diversity creating new heterogeneous varieties. With a strong connection with other workpackages, partners determined policy recommendations and identified SOLIBAM three key words that should be at the cornerstone of future agricultural policies: Diversity, Innovation and Locality/Terroir. These keywords are in line with the main findings of synthesis. Then, SOLIBAM has identified how these key words, or their meanings, can be found within the new regulation proposal for preparatory material but also undermines some of the pillars of current seed laws.
Identification of DNA and epigenetic polymorphisms for monitoring and understand diversity evolution
WP2 final results show with numerous examples how molecular markers (i) can be used to decipher the genetic structure of the different types of varieties, populations and genetic resources studied, (ii) can be used to monitor genetic diversity within and among populations submitted to participatory or professional breeding as well as natural selection, and (iii) can contribute to the middle term management of crop genetic diversity in a perspective of developing resources adapted to low-input and organic farming.
The maintenance of genetic diversity within breeding populations is critical for further improvement of the population as well as to obtain more resilient types of varieties adapted to low-input and organic farming. Therefore the results obtained in WP2 will contribute with methods, knowledge and strategies to the optimization of selection schemes for participatory and professional breeding oriented towards the development of varieties / populations adapted to low-input and organic farming. The analysis of the fine structure of genetic diversity in diverse genetic resources panels or in newly created populations allowed identifying original and sometimes untapped resources that could be of a high value for use in breeding for low-input and organic agriculture. The results may also be used to help choosing parents of populations (2 parents or CCP) to use in breeding (PPB or professional) for low-input and organic farming.
The characterization of genetic and phenotypic differentiation among temporal and/or spatial samples of different populations submitted to professional or participatory breeding or to natural selection together with the knowledge of some candidate genes that have been detected as under selection (among which some were associated to adaptive traits) will provide tracks for understanding adaptation to specific agro-climatic conditions and/or cultural practices. These results are the first step towards understanding the genetic bases of response to selection and of adaptation to contrasting agro-climatic conditions as well as to low-input or organic farming practices. The detected genes could be used to monitor evolution in other breeding populations or could be introduced in marker assisted breeding schemes for the different species studied. The results of association studies in genetic resources collections could also be usefully incorporated in marker assisted breeding approaches to select and manage the most useful diversity of these collections.
The methods and knowledge developed in WP2 has been made available to scientists, breeders, farmers involved in or interested in breeding for low-input and organic farming through scientific papers, communications and through the SOLIBAM deliverables. The breeders and farmers involved in WP2 benefited from the knowledge delivered on their populations and can use them to optimize their breeding / management. New resources (diverse types of populations) have been created and can be used by the people involved in SOLIBAM and beyond.
Training sessions directed towards farmers, students, breeders or towards a broader audience where knowledge on the molecular diversity maintained within and among breeding populations and/or spatial and temporal samples of populations have popularized the molecular markers techniques and their particular use in plant breeding for low-input and organic farming. WP2 contributed to the training of students since many PhD and master students did their internships as part of SOLIBAM WP2 and many partners were involved in teaching at universities of agronomy therefore disseminating the latest WP2 results.
Finally, WP2 contributed to the debate on seed regulation at the EU level by bringing knowledge on the fine genetic structure of populations issued from PPB or from on farm management therefore providing objective information to help define their official status.
Exploitation of diversity in breeding
Alongside the publication of scientific peer-reviewed collaborative papers in the coming months, (e.g. on the common bean trial results and diversity effects in cereals) the final results from WP3 are also included in a number of the technical/publically available booklets arising from the project (e.g. 10 SOLIBAM key concepts for cultivating diversity and 10 SOLIBAM key Innovations). In particular WP3 studies have contributed to elaborating the concepts of crop performance stability, robustness and resilience. These booklets are targeted to a wide audience and are available in several languages; hence their impact is expected to be broad. They have been disseminated at a number of farmer oriented events by WP3 partners, with positive feedback.
The results will also have an impact through their use in participatory breeding initiatives and farmer network events where researchers are able to communicate them directly to industry/end-users. Partners have demonstrated the trials and explained the diversity approaches in a number of different fora already, e.g. field labs in the UK organised in collaboration with the Soil Association, farm open days in Italy and PPB events in France. In the latter case, farmer interest in the winter wheat CCPs is so great that trials of selected entries are to be continued beyond SOLIBAM to assess their field performance over a longer time period under organic conditions.
Diverse crop germplasm from SOLIBAM is already feeding into a number of other projects which will continue to extend the knowledge gained in SOLIBAM, e.g. WHEALBI (FP7). Partners are also engaged in new bids which would hope to widen the legacy of SOLIBAM. These are multi-actor focused with strong participatory elements.
Perhaps the most far-reaching impact of SOLIBAM results on diverse breeding approaches is the approval of a ‘temporary experiment’ by the EC to allow limited marketing of population seed from wheat, barley, oats and maize. Work from SOLIBAM partners has been central in progressing the granting of this temporary licence and it represents a major step forwards in developing seed regulations to take into account the need for diversity in agriculture. The societal impacts are potentially very significant and the data from WP3 will help to strengthen policy recommendations which argue for greater integration of formal and informal seed systems. WP3 and WP9 partners have worked closely on this area and the outcomes could ultimately be ground breaking for the seed industry and expansion of farmer choice.
Exploitation of diversity in crop management
We expect that WP4 results would show farmers that there are several potential opportunities (1) to play with agro-biodiversity at genetic, species and management level to improve cropping system performance and the overall sustainability of their systems, or (2) to help farmers to understand how diversity is working in their fields when they are already engaged in on farm breeding. In the first case, which arguments should then we use to convince a farmer to try e.g. a CCP in her/his farm? WP4 data are probably not fine-tuned enough to tackle this issue, although our data suggest that farmers can reasonably be sure that use of higher genetic diversity in their farms should in time give better results thanks to progressive local adaptation. In the case of CCP, this is likely to be better and faster obtained by using locally developed populations instead of populations developed elsewhere, as suggested by the data of WP4 trials on common wheat. As such, use of genetically diverse populations or modern variety mixtures seems a promising and concrete opportunity for organic and low-input wheat growers. In contrast, in grain maize the performance gap between a CCP and the best hybrid for a target environment may be too wide to start up the adoption process, although maize CCPs may be valuable in terms of produce quality. It is expected that part of results stemming from WP4 trials should support the new policy trend, just inaugurated by the European Commission, to allow farmers use genetically diverse germplasm (‘populations’) in cereal crops. WP4 has also shown that improved crop performance not only depends on increased crop genetic diversity but also on increased species and management diversity. However, it is clear that the best genetic x species x management diversity combination should be sought locally, i.e. for a given cropping system (and related objectives) in a given environment. The importance of site-specific adaptation and fine tuning of diversity-based solution is probably the clearest ‘take home’ message coming from WP4 results. This may have important societal implications, e.g. by increasing awareness of organic and low input farmers on the importance of diversity and associated knowledge. On the agricultural policy side, WP4 results may open the road towards a better tuned and agro-ecosystem services-oriented formulation of CAP prescriptions at the national or regional scale. Specifically, they may help identify and adjust ‘diversification’ and ‘greening’ solutions that EU farmers will have to deal with from 2015 onwards under the new CAP.
The most relevant dissemination activities carried out in WP4 were a series of field days spanned across Europe and Africa (Ethiopia) where local farmers, technicians, scientists, and other stakeholders had the opportunity to meet, observe the trials, discuss and share their views on the importance of diversity for cropping systems of the future and their well-being. A promising follow up activity of WP4 trials has been the spontaneous creation of mini-networks of farmers (and consumers) getting engaged/interested in e.g. wheat populations, seed saving and reuse, and the ‘unusual’, non-standardised quality traits of produce (e.g. bread) originated from them.
Comparison of the effectiveness of conventional and organic breeding strategies for organic and low input farming
WP5 could prove that the outcome of organic breeding is different from the conventional breeding regarding several aspects. In the frame of this work, partners implemented new characterisation parameters that are relevant to the organic (or low input) farming, and their regeneration activity helped to widen the accessible genetic pool of several crops, giving the possibility for breeders to introduce new important characters/traits into the given crop, which could lead to a more stable and profitable organic agriculture.
As a result, some selected landraces with excellent performance and quality were fed in participatory breeding, which is known to be a promising tool for nourishing the people of the developing countries. Moreover, the identified new genetic resources and crossing combinations were selected as initial populations of early stage selection trials, which resulted in advanced breeding lines adapted to organic/low input growing conditions. These lines could satisfy the increasing need of organic farmers through gaining resilient, robust and resistant varieties selected especially for organic agriculture, which mostly represents diverse growing conditions. This goal was mainly achieved through the introduction of diverse populations (novel synthetic hybrids and composite cross populations) into the breeding process. As an example, this activity resulted in novel organic wheat lines that are planned to be introduced into official VCU tests soon.
In addition, a published molecular marker was used to select segregating organic wheat breeding resources for bunt resistance, and one breeding line from this program (SZD 3611) has already entered the official organic VCU test in Austria. This result also shows the innovative utilization of a modern breeding technique (marker assisted selection) in organic breeding.
Based on the finding that the organic breeding could have different outcome than the conventional, the organic breeding activities could improve further in all countries in the near future and, as a direct result, the probability of the implementation of organic variety testing could increase in those countries where only conventional VCU exists, which could support further the organic breeding.
Based on the results of WP5, new breeding strategies could be recommended for organic breeders who need to have more stable and adapted crops joined with decreased breeding costs. For example, promising wheat varieties for organic agriculture (e.g. having good shading ability, high test weight, vigorous growth and high yield) should be selected in the later generations in organic systems after the adaptation of the population. In contrary, selection should be done in the early stage generations for early heading and disease resistance in conventional field, because these traits are highly heritable ones. Thus the application of this combined breeding strategy might be economically more favourable for the organic wheat breeders.
In addition, an important message of WP5 for organic farmers is that the farm saved seeds of the model crop, einkorn was found to be less effective as propagation resources (both from agronomical and economical points of view) than those that were grown in a separate field for sowing seed purposes (on-farm seed) or the certified sowing seed. Based on this result, the organic farmers should pay higher attention to their sowing seed resources (regardless the crop species) in order to have more stable yields and crop stands with lower weed infection in their fields.
Some of the findings of WP5 have already been published in scientific journals, for example in the case of faba bean and winter bread wheat (both in Euphytica), but results of the other trials are still under evaluation/publication and will be published soon.
Participatory plant breeding and management
WP6 One of the main arguments used against organic or biological farming is that yields under organic systems are lower than in conventional agriculture and this is where the potential large impact of the SOLIBAM project is expected, in providing the scientific and technical knowledge to increase yield under organic conditions while maintaining biodiversity and preserving and enhancing food quality. The emphasis given by the project, and in particular by WP6, to participatory plant breeding (PPB), population breeding and evolutionary plant breeding (EPB), has had the merit of making these concepts popular among a wider audience of scientists, farmers and consumers. PPB has a number of advantages beyond its superior efficiency in increasing plant performance while maintaining and enhancing biodiversity: in fact it is able to enhance farmers’ skills and to empower them: the cyclic nature of the PPB programs, which have been analysed in WP6, shows that PPB considerably enriches farmers’ knowledge, improves their negotiation capability, and enhances their dignity; in developing countries, PPB also affects positively the recognition of women as farmers; their access to and control of relevant seed, and their decision-making about variety development. Within SOLIBAM, we have enlarged impacts of PPB broadening its forms of organisation from participatory varietal evaluation in the field of farmers to the management of a transdisciplinary and multi-actor research with a network of relevant stakeholders. One SOLIBAM objective was to increase and manage on farm diversity. The further development of population breeding and EPB has even more far reaching potential impact and use. EPB makes farmers more independent from institutions because, once they receive the population, they can handle it on their own, and they are advised not to plant all the seed to avoid losing the population in the case of major climatic disasters. Farmers can actually make their own populations by mixing all the varieties or populations available in the formal seed market. Another advantage of EPB is its simplicity and enormous potential to adapt crops – any crop – to climatic changes as well as all other agronomic changes which might occur in the future. This means that in areas where PPB projects have been conducted, EPB can be a very useful and self-sustaining follow up that ensures that the farmers continue to benefit from their maintenance of crop genetic resources and scientific developments. EPB makes also Institutions independent from other institutions for germplasm supply (a case in the SOLIBAM project is the dependence of MU from ICARDA). The model developed in Ethiopia is linking EPB with PPB in such a way that the breeding populations entering the PPB trials will derive from farmers’ selection in their own fields. For MU this will be a permanent asset for the future breeding program. WP6 has also built considerable knowledge on the dynamics of the evolution of population and on the consequences of different types of farmers’ management which will enhance the possible impact of populations and evolutionary plant breeding. PPB within SOLIBAM has also stimulated methodological developments, from the use of the Bayesan model, to the use of better experimental designs and statistical analysis, the use of sensorial analysis and the involvement of different actors, namely farmers, bakers and consumers, who all will contribute on one hand to make PPB and EBP more precise, and on the other will ensure that the products of these innovative strategies are profitable to farmers and acceptable to consumers. Moreover, involving end-users and consumers, the market has been collectively enlarged and no more, under the only responsibility of breeders, researchers and farmers. In France, besides experimental results, SOLIBAM activities provided an original issue with a book of recipe collecting new recipes specifically developed with traditional varieties and new farmers‘ varieties. A SOLIBAM Symposium “A quarter century of Participatory Plant Breeding: Traditions with future, towards sustainable systems” was organized by ESAC in 2013 at Coimbra (Portugal); the symposium was followed by a meeting with the farmers involved in the 25 years long PPB program on corn initiated by Silas Pêgo. French and Portuguese farmers exchanged know-how which, for example, will impact further development of milling process.
Connected with other WPs studying genetic diversity, the networks involved in participatory researches significantly contributed to increase partner expertise to draw with European Commission the needed evolution of seed regulation.
Effect of and interaction between crop genotypes and management innovations on crop nutritional, organoleptic and end-use quality
WP7 The industrialisation of the bread sector has led to the homogenization of the market, from the cultivated varieties (pure lines) to the end product. Last ten years, with the development of the organic sector and the expectation of local products suited by some consumers, a new sector of artisanal bread made by farmers-bakers emerged in some EU countries. They make bread from their own wheat production, so breads’ quality directly relies on the quality of the harvested wheat. Some wheat populations and landraces seem well adapted for these organic farming and artisanal baking practices. Moreover, they show higher nutrients and minerals contents than modern varieties and promising sensory potential. Farmers-bakers are confronted with quality variations, depending on the year and genotypes. They need to know how to adapt their breeding and baking practices to produce bread of good and stable quality. Farmer-bakers should mobilize the environmental, the genetic and the baking process levers to improve breads’ sensory qualities. The breeding lever is a promising way to make bread with specific sensory qualities (taste). Phenotypic markers of quality, such as the kernel colour, should help farmers to integrate sensory quality criteria in their breeding processes. In addition, the fermentation process control (sourdough quality, fermentation time…) by the baker is also an efficient tool to improve both textural and gustatory properties. The environmental factor appears to modify essentially textural properties. Regarding methodologies, to ease the cultivar screening on sensory criteria, an “improved” Napping test and a bread-making methodology that optimize the cereal taste in the bread were developed. This protocol, completed with experimental design provides an integrated methodology to develop decentralized participatory plant breeding initiatives with a strong focus on sensory quality improvement. A technical booklet with methodological guidelines from the experimental design to the sensory evaluation, including baking process will soon be published for stakeholders.
Strong effect of the year and genotype was found on the compositional and end-use quality traits of soft and durum wheat. BFOA breeding method was found to be the most effective for breeding varieties with stable quality for organic farming purposes and also for low-input. Standard deviation of the gluten quality characters (such as the gluten spread, the gluten index and dough stability) characterized the differences of the breeding strategies. Physical properties of the seed (test weight, thousand kernel weight), the falling number and the Zeleny sedimentation characterized the differences of the different managements in case of wheat, while for durum, the protein and gluten content were the most determinant properties. The most stable wheat varieties under organic conditions were identified. These conventionally bred varieties could be suggested for farmers for organic farming purposes. So GxExM studies contributed to evaluate the effect of these factors, to identify the most effective breeding strategies and to identify conventionally bred varieties best for organic farming purposes.
High dietary fiber wheat lines are usually not appropriate for the production of traditional bread or other bakery products in themselves, as the presence of the fibers could influence the water binding capacity and so other processing properties of the wheat flour. However, blending of the high-fiber flour with normal flour in a certain ratio could be an excellent solution for the production of a new type of flour suitable for bread making and with an increased level of dietary fibers in the food at the same time. Research also focused on maize and common bean antioxidant compounds. Their raw seed flour, rich in phenolic compounds, can also be incorporated in bakery products. Our results have helped to identify cereal and bean genotypes presenting an increased level of bioactive components in the flour which do contribute to the overall improvement of the human diet. Results were disseminated at farm days, researcher’s night, Solibam final congress and at several other conferences of Hungary, Portugal or France.
Environmental, economic and social sustainability assessment
WP8 The work carried out will help in the development of sustainable production and marketing strategies within the organic and low input sector through a robust and detailed assessment of ‘hotspots’ and areas of high performance within the supply chains assessed. In particular, we highlighted the importance of “social” and “societal” aspects implied by seed self-reproduction and seed exchange among farmers, which are missing in the available methodologies for sustainability assessment. Further we highlighted that even low-inputs very innovative farms still need to improve.
The learning from the combined analysis is that data collection and validation is very demanding in such complex systems. Further, the systems boundaries are difficult to define and different methodologies have different approaches for this. Finally, many indicators of importance in diverse food systems like ecosystem services at the farm level in addition to yield, quality characteristics of the product and consumers health issues were not possible to assess in this project due to the availability of data. New studies would need to include these aspects to give the true picture of the advantages and disadvantages of food supply systems based on the concepts of diversity, functionality, stability, reduced use of resources, nutrient cycling and local sales.
SOLIBAM WP8 developed a number of innovative modelling tools e.g. i) Network analyses to unravel the interaction of farmers and factors influencing their actions; ii) Quantitative measures of autonomy accounting for the use of freely available natural resources as well as the use of resources from the society, iii) Integrative design of farming systems based on environmental life cycle assessments in collaboration between scientists and farmers. The three tools mentioned apply a broad spectrum of methods from environmental and socio-economic sustainability assessment and have been developed in a multidisciplinary collaboration of researchers and farmers.
Farmers’ interactions with the local actors they consider relevant for their activity and innovation development have been assessed by creating a network diagram together with the farmer. The centrality measures of network analysis are used to determine the role of different actors in the ego network (perception of the network from the farmer’s point of view) of a farmer, thus giving important information on farmers’ interaction with the society. This tool is a promising way of assessing social sustainability.
The LCA and emergy assessment studies revealed a high variability of environmental impacts between the farms with diversified low-input cropping systems. This highlights the key importance of individual management decisions and suggests that there could be a significant potential for improvements of these diversified low-input systems. The DG SANCO Standing Committee agreed to a 'temporary experiment' on the marketing of cereal populations ('heterogeneous materials') across the EU, to run from March 2014 to the end of 2018.
The main dissemination activities have been directed towards peer-reviewed journals and international scientific conferences. So far, two papers have been published in peer-reviewed journals, a number of manuscripts is in progress for peer-reviewed journals and a number of proceedings, oral and poster presentations has taken place. The activities done in Africa have been disseminated through two specific SOLIBAM radio broadcasts and one SOLIBAM newsletter. The paper by Markussen et al. (2014) has been selected for a book about Organic Agricultural Practices (Apple Academic Press). The paper by Kulak et al., (2013) “ How Eco-Efficient Are Low-Input Cropping Systems in Western Europe, and What Can Be Done to Improve Their Eco-Efficiency?” was cited twice so far. The group working with emergy assessments has presented results and methodological developments twice at the key conference in emergy assessment: the Biannual International Emergy and Environmental Accounting conferences in Gainesville, Florida. The group working with LCA has twice presented results at the key international conference on LCA within agriculture, LCA Food.
Within activities devoted to legal aspects and breeders positions, partners have participated in many discussions on the issue of Farmers’ and Breeders’ rights, including workshops in Africa and seed regulation meetings with DG SANCO and AGRI. The main three keywords (diversity, innovation and locality) form the pillars of agricultural and research policy recommendations from SOLIBAM, and are grouped in three main areas: (1) Seed system (2) Knowledge system and (3) Food system.
During the current revision process of seed regulations, the work of SOLIBAM partners has been central in developing new texts with EC that takes into account the need for diversity in agriculture. One of the most significant impacts of SOLIBAM results on seed systems is the approval of a ‘temporary experiment’ by the EC to allow limited marketing of population seed from wheat, barley, oats and maize.
Dissemination, training and technology transfer
SOLIBAM had an integrated dissemination plan, that covered not only scientific but also popular targets with different tools appropriated to each target.
Articles, papers and posters
All the partners participated to scientific and popular events and published a series of scientific and popular articles. In the period 2010-2013 the partners have published 204 posters. More scientific articles will be published in the next months based on the final outcomes of the project.
Web site and communication tools
An interactive and complete website has been published and maintained since the beginning of the project. In the second year of the project a specific facebook page has been published together with a SOLIBAM channel on vimeo and spreaker.
Newsletters
The SOLIBAM team, describing the work performed and also presenting an update about the process of revision of seed laws in Europe have published four Newsletters.
Booklets
6 booklets have been published and three also printed (n. 3, 4 and 9). During the entire project the SOLIBAM consortium printed 5 booklets (n. 3, 4, 6, 7 and 9) instead of the planned 4 as stated in Description of work. The booklet n. 1 has become a scientific publication based on the deliverables of WP1. The booklets have been targeted to different stakeholders (e.g. layman booklet for citizens, technical booklet for farmers).
Farm days
Farm days are designed to be an innovative tool for the dissemination of the project outcomes amongst farmer’s communities and other stakeholders in each country. They are held each year, to enable breeders, farmers, extension services and researchers involved in SOLIBAM to share their skills, information, and knowledge also with non-participating farmers. Farm days are also a way to communicate on the SOLIBAM project, to distribute booklets and other dissemination tools to farmers and other stakeholders. In addition, Farm days stand as a space for discussion of the project results and related topics with farmers. Between 2010 and 2013, 84 Farms days were organized in the framework of SOLIBAM in 7 countries: France, Austria, the United Kingdom, Spain, Portugal, Switzerland and in Italy. This yearly appointment became an important moment of scientific and technical discussions at National level. They mainly enabled to present discuss around the objectives of the project through practical and tangible demonstrations of farms and field trials.
Part of SOLIBAM research was participatory in nature, based on the experience and skills of a number of partners to better share knowledge and to involve several kinds of actors and their activities. A strong transdisciplinary approach was built which can be described as a dynamic process of knowledge integration. In several cases, transdisciplinarity in SOLIBAM has allowed links to be made between scientific knowledge and practitioner ‘know-how’ in complementary ways.
Congresses
Three Scientific Congresses were organised during the project: 1) Stakeholders Congress, “Shaping the future of agriculture: The role of diversity in low-input and organic cropping systems”, April 19th and 20th, 2012 - San Nilo Abbey Grottaferrata (Rome, Italy); 2) Stakeholders Congress, “A quarter century of Participatory Plant Breeding: Traditions with future, towards sustainable systems”, April 10th , 2013 - Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra Escola Superior Agrária de Coimbra (ESAC), in Portugal; 3) Final Congress, “Diversity strategies for organic and low-input agriculture and their food systems”, 7th - 9th July 2014 - Oniris-La Géraudière, Nantes (France). For all the Congresses the proceedings were published in a pdf file with the presentations and the posters presented.
Video
In 2012 SOLIBAM started to broadcast some of the project event in order to have sufficient material to do the radio programs and the video planned in WP9. In 2014 the shooting and broadcasting have been realized during the SOLIBAM workshops in Africa. A team of two people of Formica blu, the media company involved in the project by AIAB, did the interviews to all the speakers and a selection of project partners. Some of them are already available on the specific Vimeo channel opened by SOLIBAM (https://vimeo.com/solibam). A complete list of all the materials shot is available in D9.5.4. These materials have been used to produce the SOLIBAM video, an audio-visual document of 12 minutes that illustrates the background, upon which the project was developed, the issues it aims to tackle, its main activities, successful outcomes and learnt lessons. This video has been diffused during the final SOLIBAM Congress in Nantes distributed to participants in the USB key that contains all the materials of the Congress. The video is also available on the SOLIBAM website through our Vimeo channel.
Radio broadcastings
Four radio programs (about 12 minutes each) were released during the project. All are available on SOLIBAM webpage as podcasting and on facebook and spreaker pages of the project.
The new communication tools used by SOLIBAM (video, radio and facebook) are very promising for reaching large audience. In particular, Farm days seem to be very promising for supporting innovation in rural areas and at local level. This approach can be thoroughly implemented in the new Common Agricultural Policy within the framework of the European Partnership for Innovation.
List of Websites:
The SOLIBAM project website www.solibam.eu was created at the beginning of the project and updated with all the information coming from the project activities. Together with the web site it was set up a specific Face-book page for the project (www.facebook.com/Solibam) with the main activities performed and some photos and videos from the project. The four radio programmes realised during the project are available on the website but also on a specific page of Spreaker (http://www.spreaker.com/show/the-solibam-project).
All the SOLIBAM videos were also available on the SOLIBAM Vimeo page (www.vimeo.com/solibam). All the photos of Italian farm days are available on the SOLIBAM Flickr page (https://www.flickr.com/photos/64755801@N05/).
SOLIBAM tried to use as much as possible social networks in order to disseminate its results to a larger audience and to maintain the products on the web also after the end of the project.
Based on the hypothesis of “diversity”, SOLIBAM has designed and tested innovative strategies to develop specific and novel breeding approaches integrated with management practices to improve the performance, quality, sustainability and stability of crops adapted to organic and low-input systems. The SOLIBAM project has been carried out by 23 partners, representing 12 countries in Europe and Africa, within the context of a lack of adapted varieties specifically for organic and low input agriculture. A fundamental characteristic of these farming approaches is a wide range of variability within the farming system, combined with a wide range of environmental variation. Having a choice of adapted plants and practices is the only means to build a sustainable farming system which is characterized by a complexity of interactions. As a basis the team - representing several kinds of actors, researchers, seed companies, farmer’s organisations and also involving end-users and consumers - therefore developed tools and methodologies to better understand and manage complexity.
From more than 50 field experiments and case studies in 4 countries and 8 major crop models (durum and soft wheat, barley, maize, faba beans, bean, tomato and broccoli), combined with several competencies including genetics, plant breeding, agronomy, ecology, food science, statistics, sociology and economics, SOLIBAM has established 10 major concepts for cultivating diversity (resilience, robustness, functional biodiversity, yield stability, adaptability, intercropping, sustainability, evolutionary processes, organoleptic quality, participatory research), building strong transdisciplinarity in a dynamic process of knowledge integration.
Within SOLIBAM, plant diversity was observed, analysed, developed and enhanced by the creation of new populations and varieties exploited for novel crop management practices. Genetic structure, observed by relevant markers, of the different types of varieties and populations studied strongly reflected the selection / conservation history of the populations showing, in many cases, significant and rapid differentiation due to cultivation in contrasting agro-climatic conditions and to farmers’ breeding practices or breeding. In addition to activities devoted to field and crop studies, the overall farm system has been assessed at three system levels: the cropping system, the farm and the chain from breeder to farmer (plant breeding and legal aspects) and to consumer (the food supply system). There was a specific focus on resource use efficiency, environmental impacts and socio-economic assessments in case studies from the UK, France, Italy and Portugal.
Part of SOLIBAMs research was participatory in nature, based on the experience and skills of a number of partners to improve knowledge sharing and to involve several kinds of actor and their activities. In a number of cases, the transdisciplinarity within SOLIBAM has allowed links to be made between scientific knowledge and practitioner ‘know-how’ in complementary ways.
SOLIBAM has developed various agro-ecological innovations which are at the core of its strategies:
- new approaches to plant breeding and development which simultaneously consider diversity and quality, performance and stability, co-breeding for intercropping, or crop-pollinator interactions;
- new food products with improved quality properties;
- new tools for participatory plant breeding and management (PPBM) in which farmers, researchers and other stakeholders together designed new breeding methods for decentralized programmes, tools for resource and trial management, and for the statistical analysis of results, along with integrating methodologies to better select for flavoursome products;
- social innovation and collective action for decentralised and participatory research;
- new modelling tools to better understand and assess resilience, viability and sustainability of farms.
In conclusion, SOLIBAM identified three key words - Diversity, Participatory Innovation and Locality/Terroir - that should be at the cornerstone of future agricultural propositions for policy makers so as to adapt the seed system, knowledge system and food system to accommodate diverse cultivated crops.
Project Context and Objectives:
Agricultural context
Five years ago, in the general context of seeking more sustainable agriculture and food systems, SOLIBAM was conceived to elaborate innovative strategies for developing specific and novel breeding approaches integrated with management practices to improve the performance, quality, sustainability and stability of crops adapted to organic and low-input systems, in their diversity in Europe and taking into account small-scale farms in Africa, mostly in Ethiopia. SOLIBAM has been a research programme which combined many disciplines and values with the aim of increasing system diversity and thus measuring impacts at multiple levels of agricultural production, from genetic aspects to environmental and socio-economical dimensions. The programme culminated in policy recommendations covering several aspects. The SOLIBAM consortium identified three key words that should be at the cornerstone of future European agricultural and research policies: Diversity, Participatory Innovation and Locality/Terroir.
At the conclusion of SOLIBAM, its founding values have been reinforced as the FAO in Rome calls for a “paradigm shift” towards sustainable agriculture and family farming . The FAO Director-General opened the 24th session of the Committee on Agriculture (COAG) on the 29th September 2014 by this declaration: “Policy makers should support a broad array of approaches to overhauling global food systems, making them healthier and more sustainable while acknowledging that we cannot rely on an input intensive model to increase production and that the solutions of the past have shown their limits". He said that today's main challenges are to lower the use of agricultural inputs, especially water and chemicals, in order to put agriculture, forestry and fisheries on a more sustainable and productive long-term path.
Within the last five years, loss of diversity, climate change and questions about environmental pollution have been increasingly posed but no actions seem sufficiently broad to address all these issues.. All types of agriculture begin with seed availability. SOLIBAM was launched by recognising that low-input and organic farming systems require crop genotypes that are specifically adapted to the higher environmental variability typical of these systems and that conventionally bred genotypes are often unsuited for use under such conditions. This has become ever more critical in a time of climate destabilisation.
Recent data in Europe confirm the growth of organic production and the market. Consumer interest in organic products remains high and despite the difficult economic climate shared by numerous countries within Europe, consumer concern about the way food is produced is increasing . In this context, outputs from SOLIBAM are well-placed to contribute to the wider challenges facing sustainability of food systems.
The overall objective
The overall objective of SOLIBAM was to provide methodologies and strategies to improve the performance, quality, sustainability and stability of crops adapted to organic and low-input systems, in their diversity in Europe and taking into account small-scale farms in Africa.
The notion of performance in organic and low input agriculture is recognised to cover a complex reality, and is not limited purely to yield. One important objective of the SOLIBAM project therefore was to elaborate concepts and methods so as to describe and analyse plant and crop performance under complex criteria. These concepts were progressively defined and honed during the project and have integrated several disciplines and dimensions of knowledge. They also emphasise how new research approaches, such as action-research or participatory research, have enhanced efficiency.
Hypothesis
The fundamental hypothesis of SOLIBAM is diversity. Diverse populations in diverse organic and low-input systems are expected to be more resilient to stress and can therefore better adapt to environmental variation. Diversity was studied and developed at multiple levels: from genetic diversity within cultivars to crop diversity on-farm, diversified crop management and diversity in food products. A fundamental characteristic of these farming approaches is a high variability within the farming system, combined with a wide range of environmental variation. Having a choice of adapted plants and practices is the only means to build a sustainable farming system which is characterised by a complexity of interactions.
Workpackages objectives
* Better knowledge of the context of organic and low input agricultures
The SOLIBAM team aimed to better determine the characteristics of organic and low input agricultures in their respective contexts and to define a common vision of low input agriculture compared to organic agriculture on the one hand and conventional agriculture on the other. The description of the diversity of low-input and organic systems, in terms of agroecological zones within the EU and the development of organic agriculture in Europe and Africa were complementary objectives. Finally, the stakeholders’ expectations and the status of organic seeds needed to be described at several levels: (1) Organic seed systems in Europe, (2) the African context of the study, i.e. seed systems, seed laws and local varieties and (3) Stakeholder expectations and the factors influencing seed and variety choices. The SOLIBAM project has been carried out within the context of a lack of adapted varieties specifically for organic and low input agriculture. Commercial breeding companies and associations, which have driven the development of cereal, legume and vegetable breeding in the conventional sector were, until recently, reluctant to develop specific breeding programmes for the organic and low input sector. SOLIBAM tried to analyse the reasons for this.
* Methodological development to increase diversity and improve its evaluation
The SOLIBAM team wished to develop both concepts and methods to implement the “paradigm shift” towards sustainable agriculture called for by policy makers. Two types of complementary approaches were undertaken to define and explore strategies to (i) identify specific crop traits and how they can be managed in different farming systems and for different markets and (ii) assess the concept of variety performance in a broader sense through stability, adaptability and evolutionary processes. In the framework of these approaches, the aims were:
- to identify specific management practices adapted to low-input/organic conditions in different agro-climatic regions and farming systems;
- to identify combinations of plant characteristics required for a crop to be successful in organic and low input growing systems and develop methodologies for measuring these characteristics;
- to define, in parallel with the aims above, a scientific basis for concepts such as plant health, yield stability, adaptability and robustness in the context of organic and low-input agriculture; and
- to identify the consequences of different breeding strategies and approaches to crop management for the development of varieties.
Understanding crop diversity
When SOLIBAM was launched, there had been some interesting attempts to make use of higher within species variation to select genotypes suited to organic and low-input farming. The SOLIBAM objective was to evaluate and enlarge upon these experiences on the basis that innovation should arise from joint research efforts putting together innovative breeding with innovative crop management, using increased cropping system diversification as the starting point.
Phenotypic responses have been assessed by considering both specific adaptive traits and more general adaptation features. The level and variability of outcrossing in populations has been observed in relation to different agroecological conditions in order to develop strategies to increase and maintain heterozygosity and heterogeneity, and thus the buffering capacity, within the populations. Based on the insights obtained on the genetic and epigenetic mechanisms involved in adaptation to organic and low input farming, appropriate strategies incorporating marker assisted selection (MAS) at different levels were explored. Although there has been a large investment in the development of biotechnology tools for crop species in the past 30 years, their use in the case of complex traits needed to be evaluated, especially within the framework of breeding for organic or low input (LI) farming systems where such traits are controlled by many genes interacting not only with each other, but also and with complex and variable environments. SOLIBAM aimed to explore new approaches to renew the genetic concepts of plant breeding for organic and LI agriculture by associating knowledge from genomics, quantitative genetics, population genetics and epigenetic approaches to phenotyping under different organic and low-input crop management systems.
* Creation and evaluation of within-crop diversity: new plant populations, variety mixtures and composite cross populations
Given the variability already associated with organic and low input systems, together with the further likely increases due to climate change and resource pressure, novel approaches to local adaptation were needed to deal with the problem while avoiding the high costs that would be involved initially in decentralisation of current approaches to plant breeding. It seemed unlikely that single pedigree lines bred for highly specific characteristics and grown on very large areas in current high input agriculture would be able to cope with the greater site-to-site and annual variation in organic and low input systems. In this context, the objective of SOLIBAM was to develop and use evolutionary variety mixtures (i.e. variety mixtures that are harvested and the seed re-sown each season) and composite cross populations, which can have any number of desired parents .These approaches have been complemented by comparison with landraces, pedigree line varieties and reconstituted variety mixtures (i.e. variety mixtures that are made up from new seed each season) under a range of agro-environmental conditions.
SOLIBAM trials in diversified environments allowed these options to be evaluated at a number of different levels: their relative advantages and disadvantages linked to the degree of exploitable diversity, dynamic adaptation to environmental variation and buffering; the time needed to generate populations and adaptive responses; trait stability and degree of correlation between yield and quality traits; the cost and constraints of maintenance; the willingness of farmers and of the breeding industry to become involved in the selection process, and the regulatory framework. Combinations of such innovative concepts within a context of environmental instability needed to be appraised to establish a more complex approach to crop breeding and management, not only in organic and low input agriculture, but on a wider scale in agriculture as a whole.
* Contribution of conventional plant breeding to obtain specific traits required in organic and low input systems
Conventional plant breeding, integrated with appropriate management systems, has significantly influenced food production, particularly over the last 200 years. During this period, it has been focused largely on improving the productivity of high input systems both in developed and developing countries. For organic and low input systems, the short-term need was to make the simplest and cheapest possible modifications to conventional approaches in order to provide a new variety, or defined selection of existing varieties for use in these types of agriculture; however in the longer term, the need was to initiate the transition, and benchmarking, towards more novel approaches specifically relevant to organic and low-input agriculture. At this level, organic agriculture and low input agriculture can be distinguished from each other. A range of breeding methods used in LI systems (originating from conventional agriculture) are not permitted and/or are against the principles of organic farming. For example, the notion of “plant integrity” is an organic concept and prohibits the use of some biotechnology methods for plant breeding which would be permissible in low-input agriculture? SOLIBAM aimed to evaluate what roles conventional breeding has to play in the development of varieties appropriate for use in future, sustainable agricultural systems, based on the exploitation of wider genetic diversity, the introduction of novel germplasm from gene-banks and other resources into useful genotypes or neo-domestication, and in the generation of new variety mixtures and composite cross populations.
Other objectives were to compare the effectiveness of different breeding strategies under low input and certified organic conditions to optimise breeding for varieties suitable for these farming systems, and to develop a strategy to allow continuous release of new varieties addressing all possible market types for organic and low input farming across a wide range of different agro-climatic conditions in Europe and Sub-Saharan African countries. This would need to be relevant under the present legal framework (UPOV regulations) based on DUS criteria, but also to the development of novel breeding genotypes for future activities.
* The need to integrate breeding with innovative management strategies
A range of important challenges in organic and low input crop production systems (e.g. improved crop nutrient uptake and weed suppression) were unlikely to be overcome by breeding alone. The objective was therefore to fully integrate the use of breeding strategies with management strategies to optimise organic and low input farming. The performance measured by yield and quality depends on good regulation of the functional biodiversity both in fields and also on the whole farm. Thus, the desired variety traits should include adaptation to organic soil fertility management, an efficient root system able to interact with beneficial soil micro-organisms, the ability to suppress weeds, to contribute to soil, crop and seed health, and to give good quality products.
According to the definition by the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (Parris, 2001), the term "agrobiodiversity" includes all three levels of diversity that can be identified in an agroecosystem: (a) diversity at the genetic level (within species); (b) diversity at the species level (between species), and (c) diversity at the habitat/management level. Based on the principles of agroecology , it has been recognised that cropping systems containing a higher level of agrobiodiversity (at all levels) have more potential to be sustainable. SOLIBAM aimed to combine diversity within cropping systems to better understand how it operates and to better manage plant breeding. At the species, habitat and management levels, several options were used to increase diversity in cropping systems in order to evaluate the performance of genotypes hosting a higher level of genetic (within species) diversity while aiming at reducing the use of external inputs. These included the inclusion of cover crops in between two subsequent cash crop cycles, intercropping, i.e. the concurrent cultivation of two or more cash crops that have complementary ecological requirements and the diversification of crop management practices (e.g. tillage, sowing density, crop spatial arrangement). Within the soil itself, a specific focus was to assess arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) interactions with plants because these symbiotic soil fungi provide a number of important ecosystem services including enhancement of plant productivity, disease suppression and the promotion of soil structure. Moreover, AMF are an ideal marker for soil quality.
The efficacy of the population breeding approach has been evaluated through the process itself, estimating the balance between adaptability (over time) and specific adaptation (in space) of populations, in different varietal structures. The objective was to identify the consequences of different breeding strategies and crop management (soil management, seed management, husbandry practices, disease and pest management) on the development of varieties.
* Implementing Participatory Plant Breeding and Management (PPBM) to better answer to specific needs
Although organic production has been increasing, it is still limited by some agronomic and environmental requirements and the lack of organic seeds and varieties available. Participatory plant breeding (PPB) allows scientists and farmers to overcome the limitations of conventional breeding by offering farmers the opportunity to choose and develop, in their own environment, the varieties that best suit their needs and conditions . This means that the centrality of farmers in all breeding processes is crucial to produce varieties that are locally-adapted and easily accepted by end-users, as well as to reduce breeding costs. Within SOLIBAM, participatory plant breeding has been identified as a relevant alternative from economic and agronomic perspectives because it corresponds to a more decentralized experimentation fitting farmers conditions and moreover, the cost is partly borne by the farmers. While such an approach also raises different issues - in particular with respect to coordination and experimental design- these can be addressed and to stimulate new innovations with variety development participatory research was considered in line with the ongoing transformations of the modes for producing knowledge and innovations.
Participatory research within SOLIBAM integrated the development and use of diversity with the scientific development of the overall project. The objective was to develop participatory plant breeding and management (PPBM) strategies to address specific and original demands where crops have evolved under the combined effects of natural and artificial selection, and takes into account the diversified management practices, needs, expectations and traditions of farmers, end-users and consumer preferences. PPBM was expected to become a framework with which to develop new diversity resources and original varieties adapted to low input and organic farming. Using PPBM approaches, crop performance was assessed in the terms needed by diversified stakeholders of the food systems involved.
* Nutritional, end-use and organoleptic qualities to be improved for organic and low input agriculture
Nutritional and end-use quality of genotypes and food products are dependent on several factors, partly genetically determined, and partly determined by the environment and the crop management systems. The needs and expectations of consumers had already been analysed in previous European projects (QLIF, TrueFood). SOLIBAM aimed to characterise organically produced crops with reference to local varieties or use of diversity within crops and throughout systems. A project objective was therefore to quantify the effect of integrating SOLIBAM breeding and management innovations on the organoleptic and nutritional quality of products. The goal was not only to make special products from these genotypes, but also to provide feedback to breeders and farmers about the effect of the different breeding strategies and management systems on quality characteristics.
* Socio-economic and environmental sustainability of the new breeding and management strategies
As SOLIBAM was conceived to provide a set of innovative strategies integrating breeding and crop management with a high level of diversification and methodologies for farmer’s participation, an objective was to test whether or not the SOLIBAM strategies are sustainable and applicable in practice and thus, to assess and evaluate their socio-economic and environmental impacts. In this way, the farmers and farm types, consumer preferences, food supply and legislation related issues likely to influence their adoption could be identified. The willingness of farmers to adopt innovative solutions varies among regions, farming systems (i.e. arable vs vegetable), farm size, cost of innovation, machinery availability, farm labour availability and organisation (i.e.. opportunity cost), and the farmer’s own attitude to entrepreneurial risk. SOLIBAM sought to assess the role of such factors on the probability of adopting organic and low-input agricultural approaches. The assessments included a) environmental life cycle assessment of specific cropping systems using different assessment criteria with special emphasis on the carbon footprint, b) resource use efficiency analysis of local/regional food supply systems with special emphasis on energy flows and the agricultural sector’s role in powering society in a world with increasing energy resource constraints, c) evaluation of socio-economic and legal issues in relation to Plant Breeder’s Rights and farmers seed security and quality, specifically in case of participatory plant breeding, and d) socio-economic evaluation of crop production and food supply ,especially emphasising the financial impacts on farmers and farm types as well as consequences of consumer preferences.
* Policy recommendations
Working with diversity at all levels, SOLIBAM initiated important discussions and highlighted the need to redefine the categories and concepts around which policies have been built for dominant agricultural models based on standardisation of production and markets. Food policies must meet challenges through regional integration, rather than struggling with international competition. A special objective was to attain coherence at local, regional and national levels. Diversity was in conflict with certification based on DUS testing for a number of important European crops. SOLIBAM aimed to offer expertise for policy recommendations within a legal environment for certification and commercialization of ‘varieties’ that do not fit DUS and conservation variety criteria (EC 62/2008), including criteria for Value for Cultivation and Use (VCU) testing especially in relation to food quality. SOLIBAM was also involved in developing policy recommendations for new rules for protection of varieties (IPRs), balancing Plant Breeders Rights (PBRs) and Farmers’ Rights (FRs). This part of the project was particularly relevant since DG SANCO and DG AGRI led negotiations during the two last years regarding plant propagating material for a changing situation in Europe. SOLIBAM results assisted DG SANCO and DG AGRI in discussing opportunities for marketing more diverse cultivars, e.g. local varieties, farmers’ varieties, populations and heterogeneous materials, thereby contributing to the drafting of the new regulations. Moreover, African partners were involved in organising two specific workshops during which results from the European report were be discussed with African officials involved in the process of harmonization of national seed legislations.
* Dissemination
SOLIBAM aimed to set the foundations from which to start changing the then current methodological model, by interfacing science with farmer’s practical knowledge. The SOLIBAM team disseminated information about outcomes, activities and challenges arising from the project in several ways, and adapted the dissemination tools to different target groups (farmers, scientists, policy makers, technicians, consumers, breeders and seed companies). The use of innovative communication tools allowed this to be delivered to a wider range and larger number of people (e.g. through radio and video programmes and a facebook page).
Project Results:
Context, methodological developments and concepts associated to SOLIBAM strategies
WP1 has umbrella specificity which aimed to better describe the context and the stakeholders’ needs and to provide key-concepts elaborated for implementing SOLIBAM strategies. These strategies were specified and developed during the entire project in closed interaction with the activities of all other WPs. At the beginning of the project, one important issue was to share our visions of “low input agriculture” and its connection to organic agriculture (OA). A consensual basic position was the concept of Low Input (LI) agriculture proposed by J.F. Parr et al. (1990), which recovers farming systems that "seek to optimize the management and use of internal production inputs (i.e. on-farm resources)... and to minimize the use of production inputs (i.e. off-farm resources), such as purchased fertilizers and pesticides, wherever and whenever feasible and practicable, to lower production costs, to avoid pollution of surface and groundwater, to reduce pesticide residues in food, to reduce a farmer's overall risk, and to increase both short- and long-term farm profitability." Even if nature of inputs, the way of their limitation may be still discussed, all partners have commonly accepted goals to (1) preserve the environment and biodiversity, and (2) to maintain and improve the farmers’ quality of life (from economic and health points of view), including increasing the profitability on short and long-term. A fundamental difference between the two notions, OA and LI, has also appeared: LI Farming is based on inputs limitation, not their exclusion, using a wide range of methods, both mechanical and technological. The health of ecosystems and natural processes are central in Organic Agriculture, whereas in LI farming systems only limitation counts and puts the economic argument as a central preoccupation, even if the environmental health remains important.
All organic agricultural and low input systems suffer from a lack of plant cultivars adapted to organic production. Within WP1, a study was undertaken to determine which cultivars farmers grow, why they grow them, and the expectations in plant breeding of organic stakeholders. SOLIBAM provided data where existing published information was scarce thanks to questionnaires to describe the various situations in terms of agro-ecological conditions, seed regulation or organic seed sector and to identify the varieties currently grown by organic producers; the reasons of their choice and their expectations for the future. The stakeholders’ expectations and the state of organic seeds was described in several points: (1) Organic seed systems in Europe, (2) African context of the study: seed systems, seed laws and local varieties, (3) Stakeholder expectations in France- State of organic seeds in France, (4) Stakeholder expectations in Italy and in Germany. Globally, results confirmed that the market is a significant factor influencing the choice of seeds and varieties. Another survey had completed the seed market knowledge with the collaboration of partners of a core-organic project, COBRA (Coordinating Organic plant BReeding Activities for DIVErsity) jointly organised an Internet survey launched in September 2013 which had provided an overview of the seed companies’ breeding strategies for the organic sector. From the survey, the main limiting factor to further development of dedicated organic plant breeding programmes for 54% of the companies was economic. Even if the ideal for organic systems would be breeding programmes dedicated to their specific needs, it is not really possible since (i) a lack of return on investment and the absence of a sustainable economic model and (ii) the lack of adapted rules for organic seed registration as a major impediment.
However, as both organic and low inputs agricultures are highly dependent on the pedoclimatic context, some dynamic and creative organic farmers have established locally relevant practices without the direct support of research or development services. During all the duration of the project, WP1 has been collecting and analysing information obtained about the scientific concepts of “organic” varieties and the organic professional context (from farmer to the market). Their initiative have allowed for further improvement, enhancing the application of organic principles of health, ecology, fairness and care.
Another task of WP1 was to precise traits for organic and low-input agriculture adaptation. Their description was based on the experiences of the partners all along the project. In the framework of WP3 to 7, more than 50 trials in 12 countries has been performed to test the relevance of the hypothesis of a beneficial effect of diversity to answer to the questions of professionals and farmers. Even if trials have their own logical dealing with the general context of the WPs, they have been analysed through an overall/global approach and discussed to feed SOLIBAM concepts developed during the project. Innovations have been tested for at least 3 seasons between 2010 and 2014 on the model species of SOLIBAM: wheat, barley, maize, faba beans, common beans, tomato and broccoli. The experiments were organised to enable evaluation of the farming system and crop “performance” according to ten concepts defined to encompass the SOLIBAM objectives: (1) Resilience, (2) Robustness, (3) Functional biodiversity, (4) Yield stability, (5) Adaptability, (6) Intercropping, (7) Sustainability, (8) Evolutionary processes, (9) Organoleptic quality, (10) Participatory research. Each partner has established the list of relevant traits from his trials, precised the scoring method and established the interests of each trait for implementing each concept the framework of all experimentations. It was based on the preliminary list proposed at the beginning of the project from partners experience and literature. Thus, SOLIBAM partners have enriched the way of describing performance, quality and diversity. Measurements of crop performance were based on a large number of traits for all the species, from 20 to 80 according to the species, and can be classified into 6 groups: agronomical traits, morphological description, health/diseases, yield components, quality traits and global traits. For nearly all the species, diversity was described by a combination of phenological traits and morphological characters of the harvested products. Then, thanks to relevant results from field trials and molecular analysis (from WP2 to WP7), we discussed the relative influence of genotype, management and environment on traits. One group of examples (end-use qualities of wheat) showed the complexity of the answers and that sensorial quality of bread may depend on genetic for some traits (taste) and on environment (texture) for other. End-use qualities for bread were much more variable in organic context than in low-input contexts. Stability was often considered as pre-requisite for organic breeding. Experiments on crop management and on experimental evaluation of breeding populations have also pointed the interest to consider first the local adaptation.
Several competences, integrated knowledge from several disciplines and know-how, within the consortium, including genetics, plant breeding, agronomy, ecology, food science, statistics, sociology and economics, have little by little brought complementary knowledge to establish the 10 SOLIBAM concepts. The notion of performance in organic and low input agriculture is recognized to cover a complex reality. The crop performance has been simplified for conventional agriculture and was often reduced to the notion of yield. One important issue of SOLIBAM project was to elaborate concepts and methods so as to describe and to analyse plant and crop performances under broader criteria.
We have illustrated these scientific concepts by SOLIBAM actions with the global aim of designing a sustainable agricultural systems, the recognition of variability and diversity to enhance crop capacity to adapt to new conditions and to increase all forms of performance. They also pointed out how new research organizations such as action-research or participatory research have enhanced efficiency.
Practically, through 19 relevant experiments from WP3 to 6, we have showed how we have organized our investigations and how we have questioned our results to build progressively a global approach based on diversity so as to feed SOLIBAM strategies. These strategies combined many disciplines and values with the aim of increasing system diversity and participatory methods on overall the food system. In addition to developing techniques and assessing quantitative and qualitative data, SOLIBAM has supported transdisciplinary thinking and research-action.
Identification of DNA and epigenetic polymorphisms for monitoring and understand diversity evolution WP2 objective was to assess the evolution of diversity in breeding populations grown and/or selected under different crop management systems and agro-climatic conditions to better understand the responses of these populations to different selection practices, and to develop strategies for maintaining appropriate levels of diversity within the populations / varieties. For that, WP2 partners used three relevant types of molecular markers: (i) neutral or “background” DNA markers, (ii) markers related to epigenetic states, (iii) markers in candidate genes. Further, the objective was to develop original approaches to association studies to be applied within and between the breeding populations and to identify genetic and epigenetic markers associated with phenotypic responses to selection pressures (agro-climatic conditions, crop management systems, selection practices). Phenotypic responses have been assessed considering both specific adaptive traits (such as drought resistance) and more general adaptation features.
During SOLIBAM project, DNA of all bread and durum wheat, barley, maize, broccoli, bean and tomato populations, varieties, landraces or mixtures to be studied has been extracted and their (epi-) genotyping has been realised. The studied populations either were available at the beginning of the project or they have been provided by other SOLIBAM workpackages (WP3, WP5 and WP6) so that WP2 could benefit from their careful phenotyping at different generations together with the assessment of environmental and management effects and selection practices. Genetic and statistical analyses of the diversity data obtained have been completed for bread wheat populations, barley populations, broccoli populations, bean landraces, maize populations and durum wheat landraces. Genotyping data were obtained for tomato populations but the analysis is ongoing. Epigenetic analysis was conducted on broccoli and on bread wheat. Some scientific papers have already been published on these results but in many cases, the manuscripts are being written now, and in some other cases, complementary genetic and statistical analyses of the data are still going on.
The evolution of diversity using the neutral background markers and candidate gene markers (potentially associated to adaptive, agronomic or quality traits) has been studied on breeding populations that have been submitted to: (i) different agro-climatic conditions, (ii) different crop management systems (low-input and organic farming), (iii) different selection practices. We developed general strategies for using molecular markers to analyse the evolution of such populations and to analyse the genetic bases of adaptation. Different methods for the fine analysis of the genetic structure were tested on different species (e.g. bread wheat, durum wheat, barley, maize, bean). Differentiation at the genetic and phenotypic level among spatial and temporal samples was investigated in these species and methods to test for selection were applied to bread wheat and barley and are ongoing for other species. Association between genetic polymorphims and the variation of phenotypic traits (adaptive, agronomic and quality traits) was also tested on these spatial / temporal samples as well as on large collections of landraces and varieties using a method that accounts for the genetic structure (e.g. bread wheat and durum wheat).
In general, WP2 results showed that molecular markers were very efficient to decipher the genetic structure of the different types of varieties and populations studied. Moreover the genetic structures identified strongly reflected the selection / conservation history of the populations. For instance in bread wheat, on farm conservation led to much more genetic diversity maintained within landraces than ex situ conservation and mixtures of landraces or of varieties maintained on farm allowed to increase the available genetic diversity through recombination. Studying broad collections of landraces and varieties showed the strong genetic structure due to geographic origins and selection history and allowed to identify original and sometimes untapped genetic resources that could be of a high value for use in breeding for low-input and organic agriculture (durum wheat, bean). For instance, Ethiopian durum wheat landraces proved to be very different from improved varieties therefore representing an important resource for future durum wheat breeding.
In many cases, populations that were genetically diverse showed significant and rapid differentiation due to cultivation in contrasting agro-climatic conditions or due to farmers’ breeding practices or due to breeding under low-input or organic conditions (e.g. bread wheat, maize, broccoli, barley). One promising type of population is the CCPs (composite cross population) derived from the crosses of parents during one or several generations. For instance in barley, the initial diversity of parents was maintained within the CCP while significant divergent evolution was detected among populations at phenotypic traits and at the genetic level. Mixing varieties or landraces is an alternative to crossing which is simpler to carry out and which can also provide resilience and adaptation. Among six three-way barley mixtures, half were quite stable in composition over time while the other varied more drastically. More work is required to assemble or breed varieties for their stable behaviour as mixture components.
High initial genetic diversity within varieties allowed for larger divergent evolution among populations and therefore for more local adaptation. In general, these diverse populations showed positive response to selection when submitted to breeding for low-input or organic agriculture by farmers or by professional breeders (e.g. bread wheat, maize, barley), while they also remarkably maintained within-population genetic diversity. This is a guarantee of the maintenance of the adaptive potential and the resilience to unpredictable environmental variation. For instance in maize, a Participatory Plant Breeding (PPB) program proved to maintain genetic diversity in the two populations studied respectively over 25 and 15 cycles of mass selection while leading to an increase in agronomic performance of both populations.
Significant genetic and phenotypic differentiation was found among temporal and/or spatial samples of different populations (e.g. bread wheat, barley, maize, broccoli). Some interesting candidate genes have been detected as under selection (e.g. bread wheat, barley), among which some were associated to adaptive traits (e.g. earliness in bread wheat), providing tracks for understanding adaptation to cultural conditions.
GWAS (Genome Wide Association Study) was carried out in a large collection of Ethiopian durum wheat landraces and improved varieties taking into account the underlying genetic structure. It allowed detecting regions associated with adaptive traits and in particular with grain yield and yield stability under stress conditions.
Investigation was also carried out using marker related to the epigenetic state (five MSAP selected primer combinations were used). In the first year, the changes in the methylation state were extremely conserved among different environments but rather varied according to sampling dates. The few differences in the methylation profiles of the same genotype grown in different environments appeared to be due to not significant differences in climate among environments. In the second year there was an increase in methylation of the genome.
In wheat, it was found that two genetically homogeneous varieties (Renan and Haute-Loire) also showed phenotypic divergence. A significant differentiation among populations derived from one of these homogeneous varieties was found at the epigenetic level, which was larger than at the genetic level. Epigenetic variation was correlated with phenotypic variation for plant height but not for heading date. These preliminary results need further analyses and data to confirm the presence of transgenerational epigenetic variation that contributes to population differentiation. Moreover, the methylation pattern (related to the epigenetic state) along VRN-1A, a major gene involved in vernalization response allowed to identify, in two fragments of the intron 1, sites that showed high methylation level and were sensitive to vernalization. In a preliminary study, variation of this pattern was detected at the population level. This needs to be confirmed but these markers will be available for the epigenotyping of relevant populations.
Exploitation of diversity in breeding
Since the beginning of the SOLIBAM project in 2010, the work carried out in WP3 has revolved around developing novel diversity and testing it along with existing diverse germplasm and pureline controls in field trials. This has covered a range of crops (wheat, durum, einkorn, emmer, barley, hanfets, common bean, broccoli, cabbage, tomato and maize) and geographical locations (France, Hungary, UK, Austria, Ethiopia, Italy and Portugal), and included the following partners: INRA, ITAB, Gautier, HAS, ORC, Donau, ICARDA, UNIPG, ESAC, AIAB and Arcoiris). WP3 was divided into three main tasks, with numerous subtasks.
Crops currently available commercially have been bred largely for high-input agriculture resulting in deficiencies when used under the unpredictable and very variable conditions experienced in organic and low-input farming. The overarching objective of WP3 therefore was to develop and exploit greater within-crop diversity so that plants have increased buffering capacity and ability to adapt to their environments. The work within WP3 focused on using different breeding approaches representing different levels of diversity (including landraces, physical mixtures of varieties and composite crops populations (CCPs) and activities were divided into three main tasks. Task 3.1 centred on research designed to introduce novel variation into certain vegetable and cereal crops with the aim of improving their performance in organic and low-input systems. Task 3.2 tested genetically diverse crops represented by mixtures and populations in trials with established pureline varieties across a range of environments in several countries under organic and low-input management. In doing so comprehensive comparisons of performance, particularly reliability of performance, between different levels of diversity could be made. Task 3.3 integrated the best of the population approach with the best of pedigree line breeding. The hypothesis here was that this novel population/variety mixture could lead to an improved performance of both components by combining diversity benefits and high performance in a flexible way. Eleven partners were involved in WP3, which was led by ORC.
In all trials across WP3, partners were able to evaluate the effect of crop diversity on performance aspects such as yield stability and robustness in the face of widely variable environments. The advantages and disadvantages of different levels of diversity have also been elaborated in relation to specific crops, and trials have considered organic, low-input and conventional systems.
Some trials, e.g. broccoli (T3.1.1) and tomato (T3.2.2.8) focused particularly on breeding and selection on the basis of sensorial qualities. Results were very encouraging and for both crops the breeding work will be continuing beyond the lifespan of SOLIBAM. To have achieved robust results following just four years of selection and breeding in a participatory setting is a considerable achievement. For the broccoli, ‘taste pools’ based on genotypic differences were defined such that a group of selections could be identified as having a ‘nutty’ aroma, regardless of the growing environment and this was used as a selection criterion in the later project years. Quality assessment of lines derived from these taste pools was carried out using two different approaches (one by a contract laboratory and one using a more low-cost alternative). The results from both were found to be comparable. Similarly, for tomato trials organoleptic quality assessed by taste panels was successfully used as a selection criterion. CCPs of tomato inspired by cereal breeding approaches were developed and the results from SOLIBAM will enable the setting up of a decentralised breeding programme in 2015 with a strong emphasis of taste quality.
For cereal-based trials, there have been two main initiatives within WP3. The first of these centred on the development of novel variation, i.e. testing a new approach to breeding for changing environments by producing ‘innovative’ CCPs based on inter-crossing different species related to bread wheat to bring together genomes for which there is no known record (i.e. so-called ‘neo-domestication’). As a proof of concept study, this has been successful and a number of novel populations have been developed and multiplied. These will act as a useful source of plant populations for pre-breeding activities. Some comparative trials of these populations were carried out in later project years at different locations, but results were inconclusive so soon after breeding the founding populations. The second main activity for cereals in WP3 has been to compare different levels of diversity in field trials (i.e. landraces, variety mixtures and CCPs). Results vary quite widely, depending on location and there were consistently strong genotype x environment interactions at all sites. A combined analysis of data from all partners involved in this trial indicates that in general the mixtures showed the greatest potential in organic/low-input conditions, but that location seemed to have an effect on which characteristics showed the greatest capacity for adaptation. In trials in Northern France, the UK CCP did better than the local control and similarly in Italy the UK mixture had better stability over time than the other entries; by contrast, in Hungary there was no strong evidence for greater genotypic diversity leading to lower variability. It is likely that the population parents and the extent of variation between growing conditions at trial sites compared to the origin country may be of influence in these outcomes and a greater period to allow for adaptation would help to investigate this further.
The common bean and broccoli trials both aimed to see whether a dedicated organic breeding programme could lead to better adapted lines for such systems and how the level of diversity impacted on performance. Results for the common bean trials were mixed; in France none of the test lines seemed very well adapted to organic conditions compared to the commercial controls whereas in the UK, the success of the crop depended very heavily on year with two out of three years having too short a growing period for beans to dry properly on the plants without rotting. In a combined analysis of UK and Italian data, however, the lines could be divided into two groups (mega-environments) based on their yield performance according to whether they were best suited to 1) warm/dry conditions or 2) wet and cool conditions. In addition to identifying these two so-called ‘mega environments’, lines were also identified that were better adapted to organic or low-input systems. In the broccoli trials, whilst the pure line Santee often yielded the highest of all entries in absolute terms, the landraces and synthetic entries were better able to adapt to different environments (i.e. they were more stable in environments that were less predictable).
Regarding the barley, there was strong evidence from the landrace trials (T3.2.2) of the farmers’ ability to select effectively for their own conditions as the yields of entries selected on the research station were less than the grand mean in most farmer locations, whereas the farmers own selections all performed better. In hanfets trials, differences were observed when their yields were compared against sole wheat or sole barley; they were significantly lower than the wheat alone, but significantly higher than the barley alone. Results from the barley CCP trial (T3.2.3) varied according to site; in Italy, where the CCP had been bred, it had the highest stability of all entries including the pure line controls, whereas in the UK there was no evidence of this effect of diversity and the pureline controls had the highest yields. It may be that there was insufficient time to allow for adaptation in the UK during the trial.
In the ‘best of the best’ trial (T3.3) the effects of mixing the populations with pure lines were subtle. When the years were considered separately, differences were observed between the yields of the mixtures and the CCPs alone in Hungary, but these did not quite reach statistical significance at the 5% level. Similar trends were seen in the UK trials, but were more marked for the mixtures of CCPs with a feed wheat than with a quality wheat. These results suggest that there may be value in further investigation of the concept of mixing population and pure lines, but it would need to be trialled over a longer period of time and a wider range of locations using more pure line varieties before firmer conclusions could be drawn.
Exploitation of diversity in crop management
The aim of WP4 was to test cropping systems based on a high level of diversity at the management level coupled – wherever possible – with use of genetically diverse germplasm. This aim was subdivided into four main research foci, corresponding to the four tasks in WP4: 1. Design, development and testing of innovative cropping systems based on increased diversity at the species and/or variety level where various parameter (such as crop yield, yield stability, organoleptic quality, soil fertility and weed suppression ability) were tested in different agro-climatic conditions (from north Europe to Sub-Saharan Africa) (T4.1). 2. Improve performance of diversified cropping systems through (co)breeding of (a) composite cross of wheat populations and clover used as living mulches and (b) maize and bean intercropping (T4.2). 3. Analysis of the effect of breeding and management diversity on arbuscular-mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) for cereals, legumes and tomato to assess which cropping systems and crop genotype better sustain AMF symbiosis (T4.3). 4. Test whether higher levels of functional diversity at the surrounding habitat (e.g. in field margins, hedgerows or non-cropped habitats) can improve agro ecosystem services, thus leading to higher crop production, control of pests and prevention of weed dissemination (T4.4).
Several experiments have been carried on in various countries of Europe and Africa, adjusting the strategy according to the local cropping systems, habitat types and agro-climatic conditions. The main crops which were tested were wheat, barley, maize, tomato and bean. These crops were experimentally tested in various combinations (according to the local conditions and productive resources and needs) with the following strategies to increase diversity at various levels: (i) intercropping, (ii) crop rotation, (iii) living mulch, (iv) green manure, (v) variety mixtures, (vi) use of diverse germplasm, e.g. composite cross populations (CCP).
The main results of WP4 activities are summarised as follows:
- T4.1: the wheat trials carried out in France by INRA showed that genetically diversified varieties seemed to have better and more stable performance than the modern variety. Regarding bread taste and baking quality, the modern variety was more stable, whereas produce obtained from genetically diversified varieties was more sensitive to environmental conditions (including management). Still in France, ITAB wheat trials showed that higher genetic diversity, either by CCP or by pure line mixtures, increased ground cover, an important trait for weed competition. In Italy, AIAB wheat trials showed that with use of CCP of foreign origin (UK or Hungary) it seems possible to obtain adequate yields, higher than those of the mixture of historical local varieties. Yield stability varied upon the type of CCP. The other wheat trials carried out in Italy by SSSUP & UNIPI showed that even though the pure line Bolero was the best performing one, CCP showed a high buffer capacity for stressful conditions, an interesting starting point for future research. In Germany (TUM trials), the use of a subterranean clover living mulch in wheat seems possible without sensible wheat yield loss in conditions of low or moderate yield potential and weed pressure. The intercropping experiments carried out in Denmark by RISØ-DTU showed that, in annual systems, intercropping of grain legumes and cereals enhanced biomass yields, improved the use of resources due to competitive interactions, and increased yield stability compared to sole crop grain legumes. In perennial systems, productivity in low N input systems can reach satisfactory levels compared to high N input systems using leguminous N2-fixation ability and catch crop effects. The Italian organic maize trials (SSSUP & UNIPI) indicated that crop performance is more likely to rely on species diversity (e.g. inclusion of green manure crops in the cropping system) than on genetic diversity. In fact, maize hybrids always outperformed Hungarian CCP. The Italian tomato experiment (SSSUP & UNIPI) showed that functional identity at different levels (i.e. choosing the right cover crop, tomato genotype, and AMF strain for inoculation at the nursery stage) seems to have a more important role in promoting mycorrhizal symbiosis and organic tomato production than functional composition (i.e. mixing two or more species) or functional diversity (using more genetically heterogeneous varieties). The French (ITAB) tomato trial showed that drip irrigation can be reduced by 15 to 22% in greenhouse and in the open field without reducing crop yield and produce quality. The trials carried out on hanfets (a wheat/barley mixture) in Ethiopia by ICARDA & MU showed that, on average, sole wheat was always the highest yielding treatment (biomass and grain yield), often yielding significantly higher than the average of the three barley as sole crop. With few exceptions, the average biomass and grain yield of the experimental hanfets was slightly but significantly less than the sole wheat, very often higher than the sole barley, while there was no difference between the two ratios. Unfortunately, due to logistic difficulties worsened by enduring local political trouble, the activities foreseen in Mali could not be accomplished.
- T4.2: The German (TUM) trials showed that the associated subterranean clover decreased wheat yield, in most cases by 5-10 %. The interactions between wheat and clover yielded either positive or negative effects, the main of which was a reduction in wheat tillering. The effect on yield depended also on the wheat genotype. Response to competition is a complex trait depending on numerous factors, acting in different developmental stages. The most important of them were crop density, early vigour, period of stem elongation, plant height and leaf habit, but their relative importance varies upon environmental conditions (there were considerable genotype x year interactions). Wheat commercial lines were less adapted to grow in conditions of interspecific competition compared to CCP. Most traits were not only affecting crop behaviour in competition but were also beneficial for yield in general, at least in the tested conditions of relatively low yield potential. Therefore; targeted selection for increased crop performance under these conditions is questionable. No clear results could be extrapolated from the French (INRA) on farm wheat-clover trials due to practical management problems and the consequent interruption of research activities. The Portuguese (ESAC) trials on maize-bean intercropping and co-breeding indicated that some beans varieties performed better in intercropping than others, thereby they could be suggested for use by farmers.
- T4.3: The Italian (SSSUP & UNIPI) trials on organic maize showed that the functional identity of cover crops was fundamental for the maintenance of high levels of soil mycorrhizal potential. In the Italian (SSSUP & UNIPI) tomato experiments it was found that AMF inoculation of plantlets enhanced root colonization of tomato in the field by AMF. The French (INRA) wheat trials showed that wheat populations (e.g. CCP) seemed more promising in promoting wheat roots AMF colonisation. The Swiss (FDEA-ART) trials showed that differences between cover crop treatments were relatively small in terms of AMF root colonization levels. The addition of mycorrhizal fungi as seed coating did not enhance winter wheat yield neither in the field nor in the greenhouse.
- T4.4: According to the results obtained in 2011 and 2012, it has been commonly decided to terminate this task. Preliminary results showed that in Italy (SSSUP & UNIPI) and France (INRA) diversified flower strips/habitats had a positive effect on presence of beneficial arthropods but effects on crop damage and crop yield are less consistent and more difficult to interpret on such a short time scale due to increased pest presence in the strips. It was not clear if the strips acted as a trap crop or as a resource.
Given the wide range of conditions and combinations tested, it is not possible to draw a single “best” solution from the WP4 experiment; but nevertheless there are some emerging trends. A first interesting trend is that generally the positive effects of solutions based on higher genetic diversity seem to emerge more from on-farm trials than from on-station trials. Each trial type has advantages and limitations. On-farm trials are more representative of a real farm situation as technical solutions are often chosen by farmers themselves and hence inevitably vary upon farm and season. This often impedes to find precise cause-effects relationships which, instead, are easier to detect in more controlled on-station trials. These, however, may be far from showing a representative farming picture. It is worthwhile noticing that the positive effects of genetic diversity typically stemmed from those trials that were performed in more than one environment (e.g. 45 farms/year studies in the case of INRA trials on common wheat). This should play for the reliability of those results but does not explain why the same solution (e.g. a given CCP) works in one farm in a given year and not in another farm in the same year or in the same farm in a different year. Co-breeding appeared as an interesting approach to fine tune wheat-subterranean clover intercropping systems to specific pedo-climatic conditions. More genetically diverse germplasm may be prone to a higher degree of colonization from AMF propagules but the effect of this on crop performance and produce quality was not clear cut.
The resources allocated were not enough to draw meaningful conclusions from the trials on habitat diversity effects on crop performance, thus T4.4 was terminated ahead of time.
Comparison of the effectiveness of conventional and organic breeding strategies for organic and low input farming
The aim of WP5 was to develop a strategy allowing continuous release of new varieties addressing all possible market types of organic and low input farming over a wide range of different agro-climatic conditions in Europe and Sub-Saharan African countries. In order to reach this aim, the comparison of the effectiveness of different breeding strategies was carried out in four tasks by 10 SOLIBAM partners using different cereal and vegetable species as model crops.
As a first step, the genetic diversity of the breeding base had to be widened. Therefore, four partners carried out the screening and regeneration of different landraces, old varieties, gene bank accessions of Triticum genotypes (e.g. bread wheat, durum wheat, emmer and einkorn) and barley genotypes, as model species of self-pollinating crops. During this task, a novel characterisation strategy, the Focused Identification of Germplasm Strategy (FIGS) was also used by ICARDA. In addition, maize, faba bean, broccoli and common bean genotypes, as the model species of (partially) open pollinated crops were also screened and regenerated by eight partners, who also utilized the local knowledge, for example in the case of Portuguese maize genotypes. Partners used standard characterisation parameters that are relevant to the organic or low input farming, and examined some new ones that could help in the selection for more complex traits, like adaptability under organic growing conditions (link to WP1).
Altogether 1272 Triticum genotypes (265 bread wheat, 445 durum wheat, 135 emmer, 90 einkorn and 337 other wheat wild relatives) and 205 barley genotypes were examined and regenerated. The best adapted einkorn, emmer and winter durum genotypes were used as parents in interspecific crosses to artificially widen the genetic diversity of the wheat breeding base with the development of novel populations. In addition, 55 maize, 12 faba bean and 126 broccoli genotypes were also screened and regenerated. Moreover, 17 common bean lines were also evaluated by 2 partners. Composite cross populations (CCP) were also developed from durum (4 parents), einkorn (7 parents), emmer (3 parents), barley (48 parents) and broccoli (8 parents), while the selected lines of the maize landraces were used in the development of novel hybrid populations and all these populations were fed into the evolutionary breeding trials (link to WP3). Selected landraces with excellent performance and quality were implemented into participatory breeding (link to WP6). The identified new sources and breeding lines were selected as initial populations of early stage selection trials in WP5. This activity helped to widen the accessible genetic diversity of these crops, and gave the possibility to reintroduce traditional landraces to their original place of cultivation, and to introduce new important characters/traits into the given crop by breeders.
The optimisation of the selection systems paid special attention to early selection practices under low input and organic growing conditions using the high input conventional condition as a control (regarding wheat and maize). This action provided the basis to set up breeding methods for organic/low input variety production. Nine partners examined the effectiveness of early stage selection on ten model species (maize, faba bean, broccoli, tomato, common bean, barley and Triticum species) under organic and low input conventional growing conditions. Initial progenies were originated from early generations of inter- or intraspecific crosses, that were partly originated from the germplasm screening trials. In addition, composite cross populations (CCP) were also used as breeding pools for selection. After the first years of parallel selection, full comparative trials were established in the last year to examine the effects of the different selection sites and practices on the performance of the breeding lines.
The early development of pure lines of different crop species under different management conditions was carried out applying high selection pressure, and the responses of different types of crosses (e.g. elite × elite, elite × landrace, etc.) and sites of selection (organic, low input conventional), in terms of the production of new breeding lines were assessed. In most cases selection had started in F2 generation using different selection methods, depending on the species. Partners had worked with practical examples using different self-pollinating (e.g. wheat), partially outcrossing (faba bean) and open pollinated (e.g. maize) species and thus could provide new tools for plant breeders and researchers involved in organic or low input breeding. The hypothesis that breeding lines are supposed to have lower variability in that environment where they were selected was proven through the examples of wheat and maize, while the various selection methods applied were also proved to have different outcome in the case of faba bean and wheat.
It was also demonstrated that a published molecular marker could be used in segregating organic wheat breeding population bred for bunt resistance resulted in the selection of one breeding line that has already entered the official organic VCU test in Austria. This result has also pointed out the innovative utilization of a modern breeding technique (marker assisted selection) in organic breeding.
In parallel with the selection trials, an international bread wheat trial (ring test) was also established by 3 partners in order to compare already existing varieties having different breeding origin. The comparison of such developed lines in a ring test all over Europe could give indications of the need for certified organic breeding to produce organic varieties based on current variety testing regulations for the organic farmers. In addition, a secondary ring test on durum wheat performed by 4 partners was aimed to improve the selection criteria of breeding lines for organic agriculture.
The bread wheat ring test resulted in the identification of traits sensitive to management system, which could be later separated according to their suggested selecting environments and could make the organic wheat breeding economically more effective. Based on the results, heading date, sensitivity to leaf rust and powdery mildew showed relatively high heritability, making it reasonable to select them for organic agriculture in a conventional field. However, it is also suggested to select for grain yield, test weight, leaf-inclination and vigorous growth at a later stage in the target environment, the organic field. Based on the results, the distinctness of the different breeding origins (organic, conventional and combined) was also proved, which could led us to the conclusion that the organic sector should possess a specific breeding activity, indeed. In addition, seed quality, winter hardiness, protein content and N use efficiency were found to be the most important for the developing organic durum wheat breeding.
The examination of the possible differences in variety maintenance breeding and post-harvest technology was carried out using different cereals (einkorn, emmer, bread wheat CCP) and vegetable species (tomato) as model crops. Moreover, the issue of farm saved seed was also examined using einkorn as a model crop, which work could help to clear the uncertainty of this field. Because, this is important from many aspects (e.g. germinating ability, weed infection and yielding ability), and from such example where several bread wheat trials in SOLIBAM had common bunt infection and severe concern for the spread of bunt diseases had arisen when using farm saved seeds, which could be effectively prevented using controlled certified organic seeds. Positive effect of the growing site (organic or conventional low input) was also highlighted in the case of variety maintenance of cereals, where yield stability maintained in organic field was higher under organic growing conditions. The vegetable model crop, tomato showed this effect regarding germination ability and thousand kernel weight. In addition, farm saved seed of the model crop, einkorn was found to be less effective (both from agronomical and economical points of view) than those that were grown in a separate field for sowing seed purposes (on-farm and certified seeds). Based on the post-harvest technology trials, some extra costs were revealed in organic tomato seed production (organic seed facilities, organic certification, training), but no agronomic difference was found between organic and conventional practices. However, in the case of bread wheat, new breeding techniques could be suggested to be applied in breeding (especially in organic breeding of CCPs), where the basic selection could target the larger sowing seed achieved with post-harvest technologies that could affect the grain yield (so as germinating ability, disease resistance and early maturing) positively in the following generations.
Participatory plant breeding and management
The objective of WP6 was to develop participatory plant breeding (PPB) and management (PPM) strategies. PPB emerged to answer the specific and original demand from marginal areas or small scale agriculture of developing countries, Europe and Africa. Within SOLIBAM, we have enlarged participatory plant breeding and management (PPBM) to organic and low input agricultures. PPBM is a sustainable strategy to reverse the tendency of modern agriculture towards uniformity, a tendency which appears increasingly contradictory with the need to cope with climate change. Several examples of successful PPB programs exist in various countries, in various socioeconomic contexts and with various crops; SOLIBAM further developed a PPB concept in WP6, based on: a) the establishment of a phenotype recording system in groups of farms using different combinations of genotypes and production systems, and b) data input from farmer and supply chain stakeholders (advisors, customers) and design of breeding schemes for contrasting organic and ‘low input’ systems in a number of crops including cereals, legumes and horticultural crops. In this context SOLIBAM’s objective is to respond to the need of a shift to more sustainable modes of agricultural production with a number of alternative solutions which, within WP6, are the development of PPB and evolutionary plant breeding (EPB) approaches to answer the adaptation bottlenecks of organic and low-input agriculture, and the needs of niche agriculture and of small scale farming in Europe and Africa. Then basic concept of PPB is that farmers, users and researchers are full partners in the development of new methodologies and technological innovations, with full decision-making power in planning, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation.
An inventory of PPB and PPM projects (task6.1) was conducted during 2011 with the contribution of all the partners with activities related to PPB and/or to PPM. 22 PPBM cases were analysed and highlighted the innovative strategies revealed by the range of experiences described. A report on “Analysis of Major Participatory Plant Breeding Experiences Worldwide” was posted on the SOLIBAM website. Farmers groups were formed or strengthened in countries involved SOLIBAM, namely Syria, Ethiopia, Italy, Portugal and France. New PPB networks were developed for the model crops in two tasks. Within the first one (task 6.2) several farmers’ networks engaged in PPB for improving organoleptic qualities were managed in France and Italy on several species, wheat, broccoli and tomato, for maize in France (traditional and new recipes) and in Portugal for broa, a traditional maize bread, and for barley in Ethiopia for injera, a traditional bread. For wheat, broccoli and tomato species, a PhD at INRA, has developed participatory evaluation of organoleptic qualities in relation with WP7. Participatory sensory evaluation methodologies refined together with farmers in all countries. The second one (task 6.3) aimed to study evolution of the diversity within varieties deriving from PPB for organic and low input agricultures. In France, several breeding strategies were tested for diversity with farmers so as to create new wheat populations. In Italy the process started with no institutional support while in Portugal two different approaches have been used with farmers to manage creation and conservation of genetic diversity of maize and beans. Several farm days were conducted within both tasks to share experiences on on-farm conservation and selection projects handled by farmers, and to share knowledge between the national and international stakeholders (researchers, farmers and others).
New questions were raised by farmers on how to improve quality in on-farm breeding and methodological tools were explored to address them. For maize and wheat, we investigated research organisation to better manage breeding for quality on farm, for broccoli and tomato, the question was how to create diversified breeding populations for quality. Collaborations between France and Portugal were developed at all levels for maize for human consumption integrated nutritional, end-used and sensorial qualities. Specific consumers’ sensory descriptors have been developed for broa in Portugal and traditional dishes in France. These data were correlated with instrumental variables to select quality parameters easier to measure for improving quality maize. In France, methodologies were developed to describe maize populations food quality from milling to cooking. New recipes were developed thanks to genetic diversity and consumers were exposed to a diversity of maize-based dishes. One result is a book of recipes with professional cookers and chefs. For bread wheat, INRA Rennes conducted participatory organoleptic tests to observe genotype X environment interactions at product (bread) level and to help farmers to include quality assessment into PPB. Sensory evaluation methods were developed in wheat by INRA Rennes and used to analyse genotype x “baking practices” x environment interactions. The results of the sensory tests on wheat using the Napping® method, have shown the effect of varieties on taste and highlighted the effect of the environment on texture. Integrating consumers in sensory evaluation of maize and wheat has given reliable results and eased the communication on sensory properties of population varieties. SOLIBAM initiated new breeding projects in collaboration with professional breeders for two species, broccoli and tomato, in order to improve sensorial quality of organic varieties (professional and farmers’ ones). During SOLIBAM project, only the pre-breeding step had been performed. A broccoli Composite Cross Population (CCP) was assembled from which two different breeding strategies were applied. Sensory evaluation has been also introduced in the PPB program on broccoli. Samples characterized by “good” flavour have been bulked in order to create pools of flavour.
Besides quality improvement in WP6, PPBM aimed at creating and studying evolution and impact diversity for most of the model species in farmers networks in France, Portugal, Ethiopia and Italy. The PPB network in Portugal was considerably expanded, the diversity in farmers’ hands was explored, diallel crosses were made, and evaluation of the newly obtained maize hybrids was conducted in farmers’ fields. Three maize populations were distributed to different farmers to study their evolution under farmers’ fields in Portugal. The study of the genetic evolution of a maize CCP (SinPre) (12 populations intercrossed in 2009) selected by farmers’ mass selection for two to three years (2011, 2012 and 2013) in two different locations was completed. The analysis of the evolution of diversity on a long term PPB selection of two maize populations (Amiúdo and Castro Verde) was finalized and experiments to measure the effects of mass selection by farmers to identify the optimal selection procedures (generation for selection, intensity of within and among populations selection, etc...) according to the environment and marketing context, were conducted on a number of crops. In Ethiopia, a barley evolutionary population was assembled and let evolve for two cropping seasons in farmers’ fields. In October 2013, 32 farmers performed selection in the barley evolutionary population grown in four locations in Ethiopia. In 2014, just before the end of the project, the selected spikes were multiplied to have sufficient seed for the future PPB trials. Participatory variety selection was concluded in Ethiopia and a new set of participatory breeding trials established. In these trials several new methodologies were incorporated. A participatory project was conducted on wheat and legumes in which farmers observed trials planted in their own farms in 2013 and choose the varieties to be sown again in 2014, preparing as well some mixtures. Meetings were organized in order to discuss the development of the project. Two barley varieties (Fetina and Hirtiti) were released in Ethiopia as a result of a PVS program and promising lines were identified in the same country in the PPP program which started with the SOLIBAM project. The basic principles of PPB and the technical details of the design of the experiments and the associated statistical analysis, were published in a Technical Manual titled “Plant Breeding with Farmers”. It has been shown that, based on selection theory, PPB is more efficient than conventional plant breeding.
Diversity within soft wheat were studied in France through the response to farmers’ mass selection in the early generation (F2) of a wheat PPB project assessed by INRA UMR-GV Le Moulon using populations developed in 2005 as a joint initiative of one farmer and researchers from INRA who crossed different wheat landraces and more recent varieties of interest. An experiment was set up to analyse the response at the genetic and phenotypic level of populations derived from a sub-sample of the initial crosses. Populations correspond to different types of parents, and derive from selection in different farms by different farmers. Divergent populations were obtained from each cross after only 2 or 3 generations of on farm selection, indicating possible adaptation to specific local conditions. A Bayesian model has been developed specifically designed to analyse the unbalanced data sets obtained in PPB experiments. A database has also been developed to store, organize and prepare all types of data and information coming from the PPB program. These tools as well as the collective organization allow improving farmers’ autonomy and ability to manage agro biodiversity on farm. Another group of farmers in France had initiated varieties and population evaluation trials to experiment better wheat x legumes association. Quality of seed within PPB activity was studied on beans model. Trials on common beans were conducted by INRA Rennes at three locations in France with populations of four landraces with the objective of linking the health of bean plants and seeds, the disease symptoms appearing on plants during crop growth and the genetic diversity of populations and at identifying useful variables to be analysed. Surveys about health concepts were conducted to elicit the opinion of all practitioners of the seed and food systems.
In Italy, AIAB attempted to start a PPB program, first by organizing farmers’ meetings with the participation of technical staff and scientists, and then by starting PPB programs with maize and tomato, and EPB with barley, durum wheat and bread wheat. A segregating population of tomato was successfully established, and the evolutionary populations of durum and bread wheat and of barley developed at ICARDA were distributed to farmers. By 2014 these populations were grown in 14 Italian regions.
Effect of and interaction between crop genotypes and management innovations on crop nutritional, organoleptic and end-use quality
Organoleptic, nutritional and end-use properties of the cereal, vegetable and legume breeding lines and populations developed under WP3-6 were studied in the frame of WP7 taking into consideration the global and local needs and expectations of the consumers. Properties were studied on plants, growing at different agro-climatic conditions using different breeding techniques and crop management systems. Hedonic tests with large panel of consumers as well as sensory analysis with trained juries were carried out in order to select the preferred organic genotypes by consumers and to evaluate the usefulness of the sensorial properties for breeding purposes. The nutritional properties, such as antioxidant or dietary fiber content were also studied in order to evaluate the health related effects of the organically bred lines. At the same time the impact of the genotype, environment, field management and breeding strategy were studied on the end-use quality (bread making, pasta making etc.) of the lines, especially taking into consideration the requirements of the production of special local products. Results will finally support the breeders, the agronomists, the processing industry and last but not least the consumers.
In the frame of this work, first of all, a methodology was developed in order to integrate organoleptic quality criteria in breeding programs of tomatoes, broccoli and bread. This tasting guide recommend four different tests, it explains how to prepare samples and how to analyse the results. In order to create new type population, a large set of cereal and vegetable genotype have been screened for their agronomical performance and their sensory quality. Results showed that it might be possible to breed for quality, using sensory analysis tools in order to take into account the complexity of the quality traits. Further investigations are needed, like the determination of the heritability of such traits in order to valid this breeding strategy. In case of maize, the good correlation of the instrumental with the sensorial evaluation allowed sorting out the most important quality components valued by consumers (texture and colour) and easier to measure approaches have been set up to select for improved quality maize, especially on participatory breeding programs.
The effect of the GxExM was also studied in order to compare organic and ‘low-input’ farming conditions. Strong effect of the year and genotype was found on the compositional and end-use quality traits both in case of wheat and durum. BFOA breeding method was found to be the most effective for breeding wheat varieties with stable quality under organic farming and also under ‘low-input’ conditions. Standard deviation of the gluten quality characters (such as the gluten spread, the gluten index and dough stability) characterized the differences of the breeding strategies. Physical properties of the seed (test weight, thousand kernel weight), the falling number and the Zeleny sedimentation characterized the differences of the different managements in case of wheat, while for durum, the protein and gluten content were the most determinant properties. The most stable wheat varieties at organic conditions were identified. These conventionally bred varieties could be suggested for farmers for organic farming purposes.
Extraction and analytical methods were adapted and optimized to study the aroma and flavour compounds of maize and ‘broa’, and carotenoids, tocopherols and phenolic compounds of bean. Multivariate analysis allowed grouping the common bean accessions into 4 clusters differing significantly in their phenolic composition. Considering the protective effects of phenolic compounds in human health, common bean genotypes containing an increased level of bioactive components in the flour, could contribute to the overall improvement of the human diet. Portuguese maize was also rich in phenolic compounds particularly in hydroxycinnamic acids, and it was found that the total soluble phenolic compounds were not influenced by the intercropping system. After processing, the maize bread revealed higher content of phenolic compounds than the corresponding maize flour extracts. Similar health related effects could be assigned to some composite cross wheat population developed in SOLIBAM, in which outstanding dietary fiber (arabinoxylan) content were assessed.
Environmental, economic and social sustainability assessment
The overall aim of WP8 has been to evaluate the sustainability of SOLIBAM strategies, i.e. innovative farming and food distribution strategies where products and processes are based on PPBM and on diversity at all levels. We have collected detailed inventory data based on interviews and statistical data for the period 2008-2010 from seven selected relatively autonomous and low-input farms in France, UK, Portugal and Italy. These farms aimed to reduce inputs, consider nutrient cycling and grow a diversity of crops and varieties. Furthermore, they focused on supporting local food supply systems and were thus candidates for stepping stones in what could be a potential path towards a system applying the SOLIBAM strategies. We designated these systems ‘paradigmatic cases’ since they represent a fundamentally different way of producing and distributing food compared to the dominating practices which are conventional agricultural production and supermarket mass distribution.
More than twenty indicators, based on Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), emergy assessment and economic analysis, have been applied i) to learn about central phenomena in these innovative food supply systems, ii) to compare these systems to highlight where they could be improved to better fulfil the expectations of systems working according to the SOLIBAM strategies and iii) to point out challenges for sustainability assessment in these highly complex systems. Different scenarios aimed at improving the sustainability of selected case studies have been evaluated and the case systems have been benchmarked against standard organic or conventional practice. New indicators have been developed and combined with well-known indicators to perform this task. In this respect it is important to stress that no indicator or set of indicators can be completely adequate and useful in all contexts. The chosen indicators varied to a large extent among the systems and particular cases were good in some respects and less good in others. This demonstrates that all systems have the possibility to continue their development towards more sustainable food production and distribution taking into account the trade-offs that exist between the different practices. The results further highlight the importance of individual management decisions and suggest that there could be a significant potential for improvement of these paradigmatic systems.
We developed a number of innovative modelling tools: i) Network analyses to unravel the interaction of farmers and factors influencing their actions; ii) Quantitative measures of autonomy accounting for the use of freely available natural resources as well as the use of resources from the society also distinguishing between local and non-local resources; iii) Integrative design of farming systems based on environmental life cycle assessments in collaboration between scientists and farmers. The three tools apply a broad spectrum of methods from environmental and socio-economic sustainability assessment and have been developed in a multidisciplinary collaboration of researchers and farmers. Using these tools it was possible to identify common themes and farm practices being adopted on the farms assessed and to determine how these have affected environmental and business performance as well as resource use over time. This analysis included both pre- and post-farm gate impacts, allowing for a complete and detailed analysis of the entire supply chain associated with each of the systems.
The main focus of the LCA analysis was put on bread and vegetables. The following environmental impact categories were analysed: non-renewable energy demand (fossil and nuclear energy), global warming potential over 100 years, ozone formation potential (summer smog), eutrophication potential to aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, acidification potential according to EDIP2003, terrestrial and aquatic ecotoxicity potentials, human toxicity potential following the CML01 method. The environmental impacts of the case studies were compared with reference to systems with intensive conventional farming coupled to a supermarket distribution system or organic high-input systems. The results showed a high variability of the environmental impacts between the case study farms, indicating that a large potential for optimization exists. In some cases the diversified low-input farms (case studies) had similar or lower impacts than the conventional or organic high-input references. In other cases their impacts were higher. In a second step, improvement scenarios were developed in discussion with the two concerned farmers. The improvement scenarios were assessed in order to determine the improvement potentials for the environmental impacts. The results showed that a considerable reduction of up to 50% was possible for some impacts and systems with a combination of several improvement measures.
The resource use analysis was based on emergy indicators accounting for all available energy used directly or indirectly to make the products of the farm. Specific focus has been put on renewability (the fraction of energy and material flows directly provided by the sun, the tide or geothermal heat) and geographical origin of inputs. On the basis of that information, it was possible to assess how a farm is supported by local energy and material flows and how much it depends on external inputs, i.e. from the global economy. For the food supply systems studied the use of renewable resources constituted between 10% and 53% leaving much room for improvement. In this respect it is important to notice that use of fossil fuels for machinery and some processing is unavoidable. Even a very self-sufficient farm only importing fossil fuels and machinery will need a certain amount of non-renewable inputs. Also gasoline used by customers adds to the non-renewable use in the supply chain. In some cases the fraction of non-renewable inputs per food energy unit produced may be low if high inputs of non-renewable inputs (fossil fuels and fertilizers) results in higher yields. However, in future, resource depletion may prohibit the use of non-renewable energy in agriculture, and the food supply system would need to rely on renewable resources. The use of contract machinery is an important factor reducing renewable farm input. The flow of non-local inputs varied between 44-90% also showing a large variability and potential for improvements. The emergy assessment’s unified measure of local versus imported and renewable versus non-renewable resources adds an extra insight into sustainability assessment that can potentially lead to new suggestions for actions to improve sustainability.
For the case from UK (a small-scale low-input organic vegetable supply system) the two methodologies, emergy accounting and LCA, were combined. The system consisted of a farm with high crop diversity and a related box-scheme distribution system. The empirical data from this case system was compared to two modelled organic food supply systems representing high- and low-yielding practices for organic vegetable production. Furthermore, these systems were embedded in a supermarket distribution system and they provided the same amount of comparable vegetables at the consumers’ door as the case system. The on-farm resource use emergy-wise was similar for the case system and the high-yielding model system and higher for the low-yielding model system. The distribution phase of the case system was at least three times as resource efficient as the modelled system and had substantially less environmental impacts when assessed using LCA. The three systems ranked differently for emissions with the high-yielding model system being the worst for terrestrial ecotoxicity and the case system the worst for global warming potential. As a consequence of being embedded in an industrial economy, about 90% of resources were used for supporting labour and service.
Based on the economic analysis, a number of strategies were suggested to benefit socio-economic sustainability at system level. These include i) continuous diversification of products supplied (e.g. a mix of different vegetable crops, meat, flour types, bread, and dairy products), ii) distribution strategies (e.g. farm shops, farmers’ markets, box schemes, restaurants and cafes, collection points for consumers and retail), iii) creating different activities to carry out at the farm (e.g. field operations, processing grain and dairy products, packaging vegetables, transporting products, providing seminars and guided enterprise visits in times of scarce work in the fields), and iv) year round work for full-time employees (including e.g. fair payments, good social environment and opportunities for personal development).
With the aim of identifying farm types most likely to adopt the SOLIBAM strategies, survey data were collected from 352 Italian and Portuguese certified organic farmers. A probabilistic model showed that women and farmers longest engaged in organic farming are more likely to adopt the sustainable practices defined by SOLIBAM. It also indicate that farm size, landownership, the existence of some types of complementary activities and the sources of information used by farmers affect the adoption of such strategies. Further, a case study of farmers’ motivations to participate in PPB programs enlightened the major economic, scientific and regulatory bottlenecks to organic plant breeding.
SOLIBAM worked with the COBRA project and ECO-PB to gain an overview of EU seed companies’ breeding strategies for the organic sector and their viewpoints about organic seed production (the seed company survey). The accumulated data from WP3 in particular, but also WP 2, 4, 5, 6 and 7, allowed us to make presentations, first to DG SANCO, AGRI and ENV and then, in more detail, to the DG SANCO Standing Committee on Seeds. Two workshops in Africa presented: i) the European situation where the seed law is being revised at a time when participatory plant breeding is beginning to be implemented by public research networks with farmers and ii) the conclusions of the last session of the Governing Body of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) in Oman in 2013 about the implementation of Article 6 on the sustainable use of plant genetic resources and its links with Article 9 on Farmers' Rights and Article 5 on conservation. Further, the situation regarding implementation of the ITPGRFA in West and East Africa in the light of emerging challenges was discussed as well as issues and opportunities related to the implementation of a diversified local seed system based on participatory innovation as a way to reduce vulnerability, to climate change and other emerging threats for smallholder farmers’ communities.
Dissemination, training and technology transfer
The objectives of WP9 were to:
1. Disseminate information about SOLIBAM project, outcomes, activities and challenges;
2. Adapt the dissemination tools to different target groups (farmers, scientists, policy makers, technicians, consumers, breeders and seed companies);
3. Publish a series of document (e.g. Newsletters, Booklets, Proceedings) based on the outcomes of SOLIBAM;
4. Use innovative communication tools in order to arrive to more large number of people (e.g. radio and video programmes and facebook page).
All the objectives have been achieved during the project, thanks to the work of all the partners according to their capacities and experiences. For example, some partners have been more able to disseminate to the scientific communities, while others have been more in touch with farmers and consumers through farm days and participatory evaluation sessions. The SOLIBAM partnership composed of different actors (science bodies, farmers’ organisations, technical centres, private companies) allowed to talk with different people and to reach many target groups and stakeholders.
The SOLIBAM consortium achieved the main result of being known in Europe as the most important player as regards organic and low input integrated breeding and management. Thanks to the participation of the partners to many events, to the many articles and papers submitted, to the targeted and differentiated communication activities (e.g. farmdays, newsletters, radio programmes, videos, booklets, web site and facebook page), to the meetings with experts and policy makers, SOLIBAM has become a logo well known not only in the scientific communities but also amongst farmers, citizens and policymakers. More than 204 poster or articles were presented to scientific events and 84 farm days were organised by the partners.
The three Congresses organised jointly with other scientific networks (e.g. ECOPB group or COBRA project) guaranteed a thorough exchange of experiences between different scientific expertise and competences towards a very transdisciplinary work. In particular the participation of keynote speakers, invited by the Congress Scientific Committees, allowed to enlarge the competences of the SOLIBAM partnership to disciplines that were not include in the project, enriching the discussion within SOLIBAM partners. The SOLIBAM Scientific Congresses were jointly organised with other scientific networks or projects allowing to share SOLIBAM visions and strategies with other scientific communities improving the transdisciplinary approach of the project and giving more reliability to the Policy recommendations published at the end of the project.
The organisation of the 2 meetings in Africa (Senegal and Ethiopia) and the participation to the last two Organic World Congresses (2011 Korea and 2014 Turkey) allowed the SOLIBAM consortium to communicate not only to European actors but also to private and public bodies all around the world, particularly spreading SOLIBAM outcomes in World Organic Communities through the International Federation of Organic Movements (IFOAM). The meetings jointly organised with Bioversity International and the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture allowed to enlarge our communication activities to the International Agricultural Research Centers (IARCs) and to the international communities working on conservation of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture.
Nine booklets targeted to different groups were published during the project, covering all the aspects of the project (list lelow). Two of them (the number 5 and 9) presented the final SOLIBAM recommendations based on the work and experiments performed in all the work packages.
List of SOLIBAM booklets:
1- “Traits and strategies for crops with high quality and yield stability in organic and LI systems Scientists” – Target: Technicians – Languages: English – Diffusion: Web
2- “Implementing research for Diversity, Participatory Innovation and Locality/Terroir” – Target: Layman people, Farmers, Technicians – Languages: English – Diffusion: Web
3- “10 SOLIBAM key concepts – Cultivating diversity” – Target: Layman people, Farmers, Technicians – Languages: English, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, German – Diffusion: Printed copies Web
4- “10 SOLIBAM Key Innovations – Cultivating diversity” – Target: Layman people, Farmers, Technicians – Languages: English, Italian, French – Diffusion: Printed copies, Web
5- “Policy recommendations for legal aspects of seed certification and protection of Plant Breeders’ Rights and Farmers’ Rights” – Target: Policy makers, Scientists, Technicians, Farmers – Languages: English – Diffusion: Web
6- “Tasting guide: tools to integrate organoleptic quality criteria in breeding programs” – Target: Scientists, Technicians, Farmers – Languages: English, French Printed copies, Web
7- “Molecular tools for cultivating diversity” – Target: Scientists, Technicians, Farmers – Languages: English – Diffusion: Web
8- “Plant breeding with farmers: a technical manual” – Target: Scientists, Technicians, Farmers – Languages: English – Diffusion: Printed copies Web
9- “Policy recommendations to sustain diversity strategies within food systems” – Target: Policy makers, Scientists, Technicians, Farmers – Languages: English – Diffusion: Printed copies, Web
SOLIBAM used particularly the videos for disseminating its outcomes and challenges through the social networks (Facebook and Vimeo). A final video of 15 minutes presenting the main SOLIBAM results was produced for the Final Congress in Nantes (July 2014). A complete list of all the videos is showed in the following list :
The list of SOLIBAM videos
1- “SOLIBAM - Agricultural biodiversity in Europe and Africa from tradition to innovation” – Diffusion: Web + usb key
2- “Let's cultivate diversity 2013” – Diffusion: Web
3- “Shaping the future of agriculture - SOLIBAM Congress 2012” – Diffusion: Web
4- “Shaping the future of agriculture: the point of view of Devra Jarvis from the 2012” SOLIBAM Congress – Diffusion: Web
5- “An overview of SOLIBAM” – Diffusion: Web
6- “An overview about PPB from Salvatore Ceccarelli” – Diffusion: Web
Potential Impact:
Organic and low input agricultures represent complex agricultural systems. SOLIBAM had the goal of producing knowledge relevant to multiple stakeholders, bringing to farmers and consumers new tools, and renewing socio-economic choices. The work carried out has not brought a specific methodology but several strategies to expand and support SOLIBAM concepts for cultivating diversity. The synthesis of results from several WPs has reinforced the demonstration dimension of how transdiciplinarity might be implemented for organic and low input agriculture development.
Context, methodological developments and concepts associated to SOLIBAM strategies
Within its umbrella activities, WP1 organised the collection of a large amount of information and its synthesis which are disseminated throughout booklets, conferences and workshops. The information covered several aspects of context, methods, scientific results, and then, policy recommendations.
Within WP1, SOLIBAM has collected diversified of agro-ecological innovations which are at the core of its strategies throughout the project:
- new approaches to plant breeding and development which simultaneously consider diversity and quality, performance and stability, co-breeding for intercropping, or crop-pollinator interactions;
- new food products with improved quality properties;
- new tools for participatory plant breeding and management (PPBM) in which farmers, researchers and other stakeholders designed together: 1) new breeding methods for decentralized programmes, 2) tools for resource and trial management, and for the statistical analysis of results, 3) integrating methodologies to better select for tasty products;
- social innovation and collective action for decentralised and participatory research;
- new modelling tools to better understand and assess resilience, viability and sustainability of farms;
- new propositions for policy makers so as to adapt seed regulations to accommodate diverse genetic resources.
A reflexive approach was undertaken by SOLIBAM partners about SOLIBAM strategies: based on competences of our multidisciplinary teams and on the citizen responsibilities of everybody within the consortium, we synthesized strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT methodology) for the implementation of the SOLIBAM strategies.
Among strengths, partners stressed the interest of diversity and synergy within diverse represented disciplines and diversity of studied biological systems within our project to study food chain supply. Networking and participatory involvement has increased trust in SOLIBAM strategies for a better response to needs and more sustainable, to promote long term food security and sovereignty and to increase farmers autonomy / self-sufficiency. Finally, SOLIBAM strategies aimed to empower all the actors of the food supply chain, with more interaction between farmers and researchers, using traditional knowledge with an alternative vision for agriculture. The weaknesses may appear with the difficulties to implement completely the strategy of the project due to time and money limitations and the lack a interdisciplinary training. The researches could seem complex to handle with farmers, and not to provide enough proof to farmers or stakeholders. For breeders, the reflection is not sufficient on how to maintain diversity and protect results, with a too small market.
The opportunities are found in the market supports and the better acceptance by society since the participation of stakeholders, the integration of traditional knowledge, the limitation of GMO. Facing the global crisis of economy, conventional farmers ask for alternatives which support employment, limit energy utilisation, re-enforce cultivated diversity. The threats have been notified on regulation aspects since no seed regulation has been adapted until now with the resistance of industrial lobbies and the concentration of seed sector. The lack of awareness of public about the loss of diversity within crops, the low commitment of scientists for participatory research within institutional and technical lock-in may constitute difficulties to get research results in short time.
At the end of the project, the analysis of SOLIBAM processes and results was enlarged and enriched during the Final International SOLIBAM Congress 7-9 July in Nantes (France) where strengths and opportunities were largely supported by other international researchers and stakeholders, while identified weakness and threats will be mitigated by dissemination activities and implementation of SOLIBAM policy recommendations.
Our results call for a revision of seed regulation to encourage professional breeders to better exploit diversity creating new heterogeneous varieties. With a strong connection with other workpackages, partners determined policy recommendations and identified SOLIBAM three key words that should be at the cornerstone of future agricultural policies: Diversity, Innovation and Locality/Terroir. These keywords are in line with the main findings of synthesis. Then, SOLIBAM has identified how these key words, or their meanings, can be found within the new regulation proposal for preparatory material but also undermines some of the pillars of current seed laws.
Identification of DNA and epigenetic polymorphisms for monitoring and understand diversity evolution
WP2 final results show with numerous examples how molecular markers (i) can be used to decipher the genetic structure of the different types of varieties, populations and genetic resources studied, (ii) can be used to monitor genetic diversity within and among populations submitted to participatory or professional breeding as well as natural selection, and (iii) can contribute to the middle term management of crop genetic diversity in a perspective of developing resources adapted to low-input and organic farming.
The maintenance of genetic diversity within breeding populations is critical for further improvement of the population as well as to obtain more resilient types of varieties adapted to low-input and organic farming. Therefore the results obtained in WP2 will contribute with methods, knowledge and strategies to the optimization of selection schemes for participatory and professional breeding oriented towards the development of varieties / populations adapted to low-input and organic farming. The analysis of the fine structure of genetic diversity in diverse genetic resources panels or in newly created populations allowed identifying original and sometimes untapped resources that could be of a high value for use in breeding for low-input and organic agriculture. The results may also be used to help choosing parents of populations (2 parents or CCP) to use in breeding (PPB or professional) for low-input and organic farming.
The characterization of genetic and phenotypic differentiation among temporal and/or spatial samples of different populations submitted to professional or participatory breeding or to natural selection together with the knowledge of some candidate genes that have been detected as under selection (among which some were associated to adaptive traits) will provide tracks for understanding adaptation to specific agro-climatic conditions and/or cultural practices. These results are the first step towards understanding the genetic bases of response to selection and of adaptation to contrasting agro-climatic conditions as well as to low-input or organic farming practices. The detected genes could be used to monitor evolution in other breeding populations or could be introduced in marker assisted breeding schemes for the different species studied. The results of association studies in genetic resources collections could also be usefully incorporated in marker assisted breeding approaches to select and manage the most useful diversity of these collections.
The methods and knowledge developed in WP2 has been made available to scientists, breeders, farmers involved in or interested in breeding for low-input and organic farming through scientific papers, communications and through the SOLIBAM deliverables. The breeders and farmers involved in WP2 benefited from the knowledge delivered on their populations and can use them to optimize their breeding / management. New resources (diverse types of populations) have been created and can be used by the people involved in SOLIBAM and beyond.
Training sessions directed towards farmers, students, breeders or towards a broader audience where knowledge on the molecular diversity maintained within and among breeding populations and/or spatial and temporal samples of populations have popularized the molecular markers techniques and their particular use in plant breeding for low-input and organic farming. WP2 contributed to the training of students since many PhD and master students did their internships as part of SOLIBAM WP2 and many partners were involved in teaching at universities of agronomy therefore disseminating the latest WP2 results.
Finally, WP2 contributed to the debate on seed regulation at the EU level by bringing knowledge on the fine genetic structure of populations issued from PPB or from on farm management therefore providing objective information to help define their official status.
Exploitation of diversity in breeding
Alongside the publication of scientific peer-reviewed collaborative papers in the coming months, (e.g. on the common bean trial results and diversity effects in cereals) the final results from WP3 are also included in a number of the technical/publically available booklets arising from the project (e.g. 10 SOLIBAM key concepts for cultivating diversity and 10 SOLIBAM key Innovations). In particular WP3 studies have contributed to elaborating the concepts of crop performance stability, robustness and resilience. These booklets are targeted to a wide audience and are available in several languages; hence their impact is expected to be broad. They have been disseminated at a number of farmer oriented events by WP3 partners, with positive feedback.
The results will also have an impact through their use in participatory breeding initiatives and farmer network events where researchers are able to communicate them directly to industry/end-users. Partners have demonstrated the trials and explained the diversity approaches in a number of different fora already, e.g. field labs in the UK organised in collaboration with the Soil Association, farm open days in Italy and PPB events in France. In the latter case, farmer interest in the winter wheat CCPs is so great that trials of selected entries are to be continued beyond SOLIBAM to assess their field performance over a longer time period under organic conditions.
Diverse crop germplasm from SOLIBAM is already feeding into a number of other projects which will continue to extend the knowledge gained in SOLIBAM, e.g. WHEALBI (FP7). Partners are also engaged in new bids which would hope to widen the legacy of SOLIBAM. These are multi-actor focused with strong participatory elements.
Perhaps the most far-reaching impact of SOLIBAM results on diverse breeding approaches is the approval of a ‘temporary experiment’ by the EC to allow limited marketing of population seed from wheat, barley, oats and maize. Work from SOLIBAM partners has been central in progressing the granting of this temporary licence and it represents a major step forwards in developing seed regulations to take into account the need for diversity in agriculture. The societal impacts are potentially very significant and the data from WP3 will help to strengthen policy recommendations which argue for greater integration of formal and informal seed systems. WP3 and WP9 partners have worked closely on this area and the outcomes could ultimately be ground breaking for the seed industry and expansion of farmer choice.
Exploitation of diversity in crop management
We expect that WP4 results would show farmers that there are several potential opportunities (1) to play with agro-biodiversity at genetic, species and management level to improve cropping system performance and the overall sustainability of their systems, or (2) to help farmers to understand how diversity is working in their fields when they are already engaged in on farm breeding. In the first case, which arguments should then we use to convince a farmer to try e.g. a CCP in her/his farm? WP4 data are probably not fine-tuned enough to tackle this issue, although our data suggest that farmers can reasonably be sure that use of higher genetic diversity in their farms should in time give better results thanks to progressive local adaptation. In the case of CCP, this is likely to be better and faster obtained by using locally developed populations instead of populations developed elsewhere, as suggested by the data of WP4 trials on common wheat. As such, use of genetically diverse populations or modern variety mixtures seems a promising and concrete opportunity for organic and low-input wheat growers. In contrast, in grain maize the performance gap between a CCP and the best hybrid for a target environment may be too wide to start up the adoption process, although maize CCPs may be valuable in terms of produce quality. It is expected that part of results stemming from WP4 trials should support the new policy trend, just inaugurated by the European Commission, to allow farmers use genetically diverse germplasm (‘populations’) in cereal crops. WP4 has also shown that improved crop performance not only depends on increased crop genetic diversity but also on increased species and management diversity. However, it is clear that the best genetic x species x management diversity combination should be sought locally, i.e. for a given cropping system (and related objectives) in a given environment. The importance of site-specific adaptation and fine tuning of diversity-based solution is probably the clearest ‘take home’ message coming from WP4 results. This may have important societal implications, e.g. by increasing awareness of organic and low input farmers on the importance of diversity and associated knowledge. On the agricultural policy side, WP4 results may open the road towards a better tuned and agro-ecosystem services-oriented formulation of CAP prescriptions at the national or regional scale. Specifically, they may help identify and adjust ‘diversification’ and ‘greening’ solutions that EU farmers will have to deal with from 2015 onwards under the new CAP.
The most relevant dissemination activities carried out in WP4 were a series of field days spanned across Europe and Africa (Ethiopia) where local farmers, technicians, scientists, and other stakeholders had the opportunity to meet, observe the trials, discuss and share their views on the importance of diversity for cropping systems of the future and their well-being. A promising follow up activity of WP4 trials has been the spontaneous creation of mini-networks of farmers (and consumers) getting engaged/interested in e.g. wheat populations, seed saving and reuse, and the ‘unusual’, non-standardised quality traits of produce (e.g. bread) originated from them.
Comparison of the effectiveness of conventional and organic breeding strategies for organic and low input farming
WP5 could prove that the outcome of organic breeding is different from the conventional breeding regarding several aspects. In the frame of this work, partners implemented new characterisation parameters that are relevant to the organic (or low input) farming, and their regeneration activity helped to widen the accessible genetic pool of several crops, giving the possibility for breeders to introduce new important characters/traits into the given crop, which could lead to a more stable and profitable organic agriculture.
As a result, some selected landraces with excellent performance and quality were fed in participatory breeding, which is known to be a promising tool for nourishing the people of the developing countries. Moreover, the identified new genetic resources and crossing combinations were selected as initial populations of early stage selection trials, which resulted in advanced breeding lines adapted to organic/low input growing conditions. These lines could satisfy the increasing need of organic farmers through gaining resilient, robust and resistant varieties selected especially for organic agriculture, which mostly represents diverse growing conditions. This goal was mainly achieved through the introduction of diverse populations (novel synthetic hybrids and composite cross populations) into the breeding process. As an example, this activity resulted in novel organic wheat lines that are planned to be introduced into official VCU tests soon.
In addition, a published molecular marker was used to select segregating organic wheat breeding resources for bunt resistance, and one breeding line from this program (SZD 3611) has already entered the official organic VCU test in Austria. This result also shows the innovative utilization of a modern breeding technique (marker assisted selection) in organic breeding.
Based on the finding that the organic breeding could have different outcome than the conventional, the organic breeding activities could improve further in all countries in the near future and, as a direct result, the probability of the implementation of organic variety testing could increase in those countries where only conventional VCU exists, which could support further the organic breeding.
Based on the results of WP5, new breeding strategies could be recommended for organic breeders who need to have more stable and adapted crops joined with decreased breeding costs. For example, promising wheat varieties for organic agriculture (e.g. having good shading ability, high test weight, vigorous growth and high yield) should be selected in the later generations in organic systems after the adaptation of the population. In contrary, selection should be done in the early stage generations for early heading and disease resistance in conventional field, because these traits are highly heritable ones. Thus the application of this combined breeding strategy might be economically more favourable for the organic wheat breeders.
In addition, an important message of WP5 for organic farmers is that the farm saved seeds of the model crop, einkorn was found to be less effective as propagation resources (both from agronomical and economical points of view) than those that were grown in a separate field for sowing seed purposes (on-farm seed) or the certified sowing seed. Based on this result, the organic farmers should pay higher attention to their sowing seed resources (regardless the crop species) in order to have more stable yields and crop stands with lower weed infection in their fields.
Some of the findings of WP5 have already been published in scientific journals, for example in the case of faba bean and winter bread wheat (both in Euphytica), but results of the other trials are still under evaluation/publication and will be published soon.
Participatory plant breeding and management
WP6 One of the main arguments used against organic or biological farming is that yields under organic systems are lower than in conventional agriculture and this is where the potential large impact of the SOLIBAM project is expected, in providing the scientific and technical knowledge to increase yield under organic conditions while maintaining biodiversity and preserving and enhancing food quality. The emphasis given by the project, and in particular by WP6, to participatory plant breeding (PPB), population breeding and evolutionary plant breeding (EPB), has had the merit of making these concepts popular among a wider audience of scientists, farmers and consumers. PPB has a number of advantages beyond its superior efficiency in increasing plant performance while maintaining and enhancing biodiversity: in fact it is able to enhance farmers’ skills and to empower them: the cyclic nature of the PPB programs, which have been analysed in WP6, shows that PPB considerably enriches farmers’ knowledge, improves their negotiation capability, and enhances their dignity; in developing countries, PPB also affects positively the recognition of women as farmers; their access to and control of relevant seed, and their decision-making about variety development. Within SOLIBAM, we have enlarged impacts of PPB broadening its forms of organisation from participatory varietal evaluation in the field of farmers to the management of a transdisciplinary and multi-actor research with a network of relevant stakeholders. One SOLIBAM objective was to increase and manage on farm diversity. The further development of population breeding and EPB has even more far reaching potential impact and use. EPB makes farmers more independent from institutions because, once they receive the population, they can handle it on their own, and they are advised not to plant all the seed to avoid losing the population in the case of major climatic disasters. Farmers can actually make their own populations by mixing all the varieties or populations available in the formal seed market. Another advantage of EPB is its simplicity and enormous potential to adapt crops – any crop – to climatic changes as well as all other agronomic changes which might occur in the future. This means that in areas where PPB projects have been conducted, EPB can be a very useful and self-sustaining follow up that ensures that the farmers continue to benefit from their maintenance of crop genetic resources and scientific developments. EPB makes also Institutions independent from other institutions for germplasm supply (a case in the SOLIBAM project is the dependence of MU from ICARDA). The model developed in Ethiopia is linking EPB with PPB in such a way that the breeding populations entering the PPB trials will derive from farmers’ selection in their own fields. For MU this will be a permanent asset for the future breeding program. WP6 has also built considerable knowledge on the dynamics of the evolution of population and on the consequences of different types of farmers’ management which will enhance the possible impact of populations and evolutionary plant breeding. PPB within SOLIBAM has also stimulated methodological developments, from the use of the Bayesan model, to the use of better experimental designs and statistical analysis, the use of sensorial analysis and the involvement of different actors, namely farmers, bakers and consumers, who all will contribute on one hand to make PPB and EBP more precise, and on the other will ensure that the products of these innovative strategies are profitable to farmers and acceptable to consumers. Moreover, involving end-users and consumers, the market has been collectively enlarged and no more, under the only responsibility of breeders, researchers and farmers. In France, besides experimental results, SOLIBAM activities provided an original issue with a book of recipe collecting new recipes specifically developed with traditional varieties and new farmers‘ varieties. A SOLIBAM Symposium “A quarter century of Participatory Plant Breeding: Traditions with future, towards sustainable systems” was organized by ESAC in 2013 at Coimbra (Portugal); the symposium was followed by a meeting with the farmers involved in the 25 years long PPB program on corn initiated by Silas Pêgo. French and Portuguese farmers exchanged know-how which, for example, will impact further development of milling process.
Connected with other WPs studying genetic diversity, the networks involved in participatory researches significantly contributed to increase partner expertise to draw with European Commission the needed evolution of seed regulation.
Effect of and interaction between crop genotypes and management innovations on crop nutritional, organoleptic and end-use quality
WP7 The industrialisation of the bread sector has led to the homogenization of the market, from the cultivated varieties (pure lines) to the end product. Last ten years, with the development of the organic sector and the expectation of local products suited by some consumers, a new sector of artisanal bread made by farmers-bakers emerged in some EU countries. They make bread from their own wheat production, so breads’ quality directly relies on the quality of the harvested wheat. Some wheat populations and landraces seem well adapted for these organic farming and artisanal baking practices. Moreover, they show higher nutrients and minerals contents than modern varieties and promising sensory potential. Farmers-bakers are confronted with quality variations, depending on the year and genotypes. They need to know how to adapt their breeding and baking practices to produce bread of good and stable quality. Farmer-bakers should mobilize the environmental, the genetic and the baking process levers to improve breads’ sensory qualities. The breeding lever is a promising way to make bread with specific sensory qualities (taste). Phenotypic markers of quality, such as the kernel colour, should help farmers to integrate sensory quality criteria in their breeding processes. In addition, the fermentation process control (sourdough quality, fermentation time…) by the baker is also an efficient tool to improve both textural and gustatory properties. The environmental factor appears to modify essentially textural properties. Regarding methodologies, to ease the cultivar screening on sensory criteria, an “improved” Napping test and a bread-making methodology that optimize the cereal taste in the bread were developed. This protocol, completed with experimental design provides an integrated methodology to develop decentralized participatory plant breeding initiatives with a strong focus on sensory quality improvement. A technical booklet with methodological guidelines from the experimental design to the sensory evaluation, including baking process will soon be published for stakeholders.
Strong effect of the year and genotype was found on the compositional and end-use quality traits of soft and durum wheat. BFOA breeding method was found to be the most effective for breeding varieties with stable quality for organic farming purposes and also for low-input. Standard deviation of the gluten quality characters (such as the gluten spread, the gluten index and dough stability) characterized the differences of the breeding strategies. Physical properties of the seed (test weight, thousand kernel weight), the falling number and the Zeleny sedimentation characterized the differences of the different managements in case of wheat, while for durum, the protein and gluten content were the most determinant properties. The most stable wheat varieties under organic conditions were identified. These conventionally bred varieties could be suggested for farmers for organic farming purposes. So GxExM studies contributed to evaluate the effect of these factors, to identify the most effective breeding strategies and to identify conventionally bred varieties best for organic farming purposes.
High dietary fiber wheat lines are usually not appropriate for the production of traditional bread or other bakery products in themselves, as the presence of the fibers could influence the water binding capacity and so other processing properties of the wheat flour. However, blending of the high-fiber flour with normal flour in a certain ratio could be an excellent solution for the production of a new type of flour suitable for bread making and with an increased level of dietary fibers in the food at the same time. Research also focused on maize and common bean antioxidant compounds. Their raw seed flour, rich in phenolic compounds, can also be incorporated in bakery products. Our results have helped to identify cereal and bean genotypes presenting an increased level of bioactive components in the flour which do contribute to the overall improvement of the human diet. Results were disseminated at farm days, researcher’s night, Solibam final congress and at several other conferences of Hungary, Portugal or France.
Environmental, economic and social sustainability assessment
WP8 The work carried out will help in the development of sustainable production and marketing strategies within the organic and low input sector through a robust and detailed assessment of ‘hotspots’ and areas of high performance within the supply chains assessed. In particular, we highlighted the importance of “social” and “societal” aspects implied by seed self-reproduction and seed exchange among farmers, which are missing in the available methodologies for sustainability assessment. Further we highlighted that even low-inputs very innovative farms still need to improve.
The learning from the combined analysis is that data collection and validation is very demanding in such complex systems. Further, the systems boundaries are difficult to define and different methodologies have different approaches for this. Finally, many indicators of importance in diverse food systems like ecosystem services at the farm level in addition to yield, quality characteristics of the product and consumers health issues were not possible to assess in this project due to the availability of data. New studies would need to include these aspects to give the true picture of the advantages and disadvantages of food supply systems based on the concepts of diversity, functionality, stability, reduced use of resources, nutrient cycling and local sales.
SOLIBAM WP8 developed a number of innovative modelling tools e.g. i) Network analyses to unravel the interaction of farmers and factors influencing their actions; ii) Quantitative measures of autonomy accounting for the use of freely available natural resources as well as the use of resources from the society, iii) Integrative design of farming systems based on environmental life cycle assessments in collaboration between scientists and farmers. The three tools mentioned apply a broad spectrum of methods from environmental and socio-economic sustainability assessment and have been developed in a multidisciplinary collaboration of researchers and farmers.
Farmers’ interactions with the local actors they consider relevant for their activity and innovation development have been assessed by creating a network diagram together with the farmer. The centrality measures of network analysis are used to determine the role of different actors in the ego network (perception of the network from the farmer’s point of view) of a farmer, thus giving important information on farmers’ interaction with the society. This tool is a promising way of assessing social sustainability.
The LCA and emergy assessment studies revealed a high variability of environmental impacts between the farms with diversified low-input cropping systems. This highlights the key importance of individual management decisions and suggests that there could be a significant potential for improvements of these diversified low-input systems. The DG SANCO Standing Committee agreed to a 'temporary experiment' on the marketing of cereal populations ('heterogeneous materials') across the EU, to run from March 2014 to the end of 2018.
The main dissemination activities have been directed towards peer-reviewed journals and international scientific conferences. So far, two papers have been published in peer-reviewed journals, a number of manuscripts is in progress for peer-reviewed journals and a number of proceedings, oral and poster presentations has taken place. The activities done in Africa have been disseminated through two specific SOLIBAM radio broadcasts and one SOLIBAM newsletter. The paper by Markussen et al. (2014) has been selected for a book about Organic Agricultural Practices (Apple Academic Press). The paper by Kulak et al., (2013) “ How Eco-Efficient Are Low-Input Cropping Systems in Western Europe, and What Can Be Done to Improve Their Eco-Efficiency?” was cited twice so far. The group working with emergy assessments has presented results and methodological developments twice at the key conference in emergy assessment: the Biannual International Emergy and Environmental Accounting conferences in Gainesville, Florida. The group working with LCA has twice presented results at the key international conference on LCA within agriculture, LCA Food.
Within activities devoted to legal aspects and breeders positions, partners have participated in many discussions on the issue of Farmers’ and Breeders’ rights, including workshops in Africa and seed regulation meetings with DG SANCO and AGRI. The main three keywords (diversity, innovation and locality) form the pillars of agricultural and research policy recommendations from SOLIBAM, and are grouped in three main areas: (1) Seed system (2) Knowledge system and (3) Food system.
During the current revision process of seed regulations, the work of SOLIBAM partners has been central in developing new texts with EC that takes into account the need for diversity in agriculture. One of the most significant impacts of SOLIBAM results on seed systems is the approval of a ‘temporary experiment’ by the EC to allow limited marketing of population seed from wheat, barley, oats and maize.
Dissemination, training and technology transfer
SOLIBAM had an integrated dissemination plan, that covered not only scientific but also popular targets with different tools appropriated to each target.
Articles, papers and posters
All the partners participated to scientific and popular events and published a series of scientific and popular articles. In the period 2010-2013 the partners have published 204 posters. More scientific articles will be published in the next months based on the final outcomes of the project.
Web site and communication tools
An interactive and complete website has been published and maintained since the beginning of the project. In the second year of the project a specific facebook page has been published together with a SOLIBAM channel on vimeo and spreaker.
Newsletters
The SOLIBAM team, describing the work performed and also presenting an update about the process of revision of seed laws in Europe have published four Newsletters.
Booklets
6 booklets have been published and three also printed (n. 3, 4 and 9). During the entire project the SOLIBAM consortium printed 5 booklets (n. 3, 4, 6, 7 and 9) instead of the planned 4 as stated in Description of work. The booklet n. 1 has become a scientific publication based on the deliverables of WP1. The booklets have been targeted to different stakeholders (e.g. layman booklet for citizens, technical booklet for farmers).
Farm days
Farm days are designed to be an innovative tool for the dissemination of the project outcomes amongst farmer’s communities and other stakeholders in each country. They are held each year, to enable breeders, farmers, extension services and researchers involved in SOLIBAM to share their skills, information, and knowledge also with non-participating farmers. Farm days are also a way to communicate on the SOLIBAM project, to distribute booklets and other dissemination tools to farmers and other stakeholders. In addition, Farm days stand as a space for discussion of the project results and related topics with farmers. Between 2010 and 2013, 84 Farms days were organized in the framework of SOLIBAM in 7 countries: France, Austria, the United Kingdom, Spain, Portugal, Switzerland and in Italy. This yearly appointment became an important moment of scientific and technical discussions at National level. They mainly enabled to present discuss around the objectives of the project through practical and tangible demonstrations of farms and field trials.
Part of SOLIBAM research was participatory in nature, based on the experience and skills of a number of partners to better share knowledge and to involve several kinds of actors and their activities. A strong transdisciplinary approach was built which can be described as a dynamic process of knowledge integration. In several cases, transdisciplinarity in SOLIBAM has allowed links to be made between scientific knowledge and practitioner ‘know-how’ in complementary ways.
Congresses
Three Scientific Congresses were organised during the project: 1) Stakeholders Congress, “Shaping the future of agriculture: The role of diversity in low-input and organic cropping systems”, April 19th and 20th, 2012 - San Nilo Abbey Grottaferrata (Rome, Italy); 2) Stakeholders Congress, “A quarter century of Participatory Plant Breeding: Traditions with future, towards sustainable systems”, April 10th , 2013 - Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra Escola Superior Agrária de Coimbra (ESAC), in Portugal; 3) Final Congress, “Diversity strategies for organic and low-input agriculture and their food systems”, 7th - 9th July 2014 - Oniris-La Géraudière, Nantes (France). For all the Congresses the proceedings were published in a pdf file with the presentations and the posters presented.
Video
In 2012 SOLIBAM started to broadcast some of the project event in order to have sufficient material to do the radio programs and the video planned in WP9. In 2014 the shooting and broadcasting have been realized during the SOLIBAM workshops in Africa. A team of two people of Formica blu, the media company involved in the project by AIAB, did the interviews to all the speakers and a selection of project partners. Some of them are already available on the specific Vimeo channel opened by SOLIBAM (https://vimeo.com/solibam). A complete list of all the materials shot is available in D9.5.4. These materials have been used to produce the SOLIBAM video, an audio-visual document of 12 minutes that illustrates the background, upon which the project was developed, the issues it aims to tackle, its main activities, successful outcomes and learnt lessons. This video has been diffused during the final SOLIBAM Congress in Nantes distributed to participants in the USB key that contains all the materials of the Congress. The video is also available on the SOLIBAM website through our Vimeo channel.
Radio broadcastings
Four radio programs (about 12 minutes each) were released during the project. All are available on SOLIBAM webpage as podcasting and on facebook and spreaker pages of the project.
The new communication tools used by SOLIBAM (video, radio and facebook) are very promising for reaching large audience. In particular, Farm days seem to be very promising for supporting innovation in rural areas and at local level. This approach can be thoroughly implemented in the new Common Agricultural Policy within the framework of the European Partnership for Innovation.
List of Websites:
The SOLIBAM project website www.solibam.eu was created at the beginning of the project and updated with all the information coming from the project activities. Together with the web site it was set up a specific Face-book page for the project (www.facebook.com/Solibam) with the main activities performed and some photos and videos from the project. The four radio programmes realised during the project are available on the website but also on a specific page of Spreaker (http://www.spreaker.com/show/the-solibam-project).
All the SOLIBAM videos were also available on the SOLIBAM Vimeo page (www.vimeo.com/solibam). All the photos of Italian farm days are available on the SOLIBAM Flickr page (https://www.flickr.com/photos/64755801@N05/).
SOLIBAM tried to use as much as possible social networks in order to disseminate its results to a larger audience and to maintain the products on the web also after the end of the project.