Periodic Reporting for period 4 - BANTURIVERS (At a Crossroads of Bantu Expansions: Present and Past Riverside Communities in the Congo Basin, from an Integrated Linguistic, Anthropological and Archaeological Perspective)
Reporting period: 2023-07-01 to 2024-12-31
The BANTURIVERS project, “At a Crossroads of Bantu Expansions: Present and Past Riverside Communities in the Congo Basin, from an Integrated Linguistic, Anthropological and Archaeological Perspective”, was the first multidisciplinary project to study the precolonial past of the north-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. The project addressed the region’s past from the viewpoint of the “Bantu Expansion” and the hypothesis that it was closely linked to the advance of farmers looking for new lands and therefore avoiding the rainforest. The BANTURIVERS project studied a crossroads of different Bantu expansions in the heart of the Central-African rainforest, namely the Congo River and its tributaries up- and downstream of Kisangani until Basoko and Kirundu. Farming being complicated in a rainforest environment, we investigated the role of rivers in the settlement of the area, as ways into the forest and as source of animal protein (fish). To tackle these linguistic questions we also applied anthropology, archaeology and archaeo-ichthyology.
We arrived at important insights in the population history of the eastern Congo Basin, linking its early settlement more than 2000 years ago to the first wave of the Bantu Expansion, and we uncovered multiple new layers of cultural change and contact thanks to archaeology, historical comparative linguistic and the study of vernacular histories. Our anthropologists documented how rivers play a role in the life of present-day communities, focusing on sociocultural aspects and the development of new techniques. Historical comparative linguistics is tracing the history of river-related techniques, tools and knowledge. Through archaeo-ichthyology, we provide archaeological evidence for past fishing techniques and the importance of fishing for ancient communities.
We arrived at important insights in the population history of the eastern Congo Basin, linking its early settlement more than 2000 years ago to the first wave of the Bantu Expansion, and we uncovered multiple new layers of cultural change and contact thanks to archaeology, historical comparative linguistic and the study of vernacular histories. Our anthropologists documented how rivers play a role in the life of present-day communities, focusing on sociocultural aspects and the development of new techniques. Historical comparative linguistics is tracing the history of river-related techniques, tools and knowledge. Through archaeo-ichthyology, we provide archaeological evidence for past fishing techniques and the importance of fishing for ancient communities.
The project started with a large language documentation effort, covering 54 out of over 90 languages, mostly Bantu. We described the linguistic situation in the northeastern DRC in Ricquier et al. (2022) and presented five poorly documented Bantu languages to the scientific community (Lekango, Mokpa, Mbole, Kolongbandi and Bogbasa) (Kujath et al. submitted). The linguistic data served language classification, the study of language contact, the historical-linguistic reconstruction of river-related vocabulary and the grammatical study of Lekango. We presented a new phylogenetic classification for the Bantu languages of the northeastern DRC (Ricquier et al. 2022). Further research surprisingly refutes previous hypotheses. Concerning language contact, we focused on Mokpa and neighboring languages. A study of labial-velar consonants led to the discovery of substrate influence, possibly related to Mbole and Lokele (Kopa wa Kopa & Ricquier 2023). Lexical comparison confirms the influence of Mbole and reveals earlier contact between the ancestors of the mentioned languages (Kopa wa Kopa & Ricquier submitted). Finally, a sociolinguistic study addresses the present contact situation (see David Kopa wa Kopa’s PhD dissertation, successfully defended on March 27th, 2025).
We collected vernacular histories in 2019-2020 but reverted to the archives during the COVID-19 pandemic. Combined with linguistic results, this provided new insights into the precolonial history of the lower Lualaba (Ricquier et al. 2023). The anthropological fieldwork truly started off in 2022, in Mbole villages in Opala and Isangi Territory, villages around Basoko, and Mokpa villages at the Lualaba River. The anthropologists documented boat construction types, the use of specific fish traps, a collective and socially important fishing technique named “scooping” and the plastification of fish net weights.
The archaeological fieldwork consisted of three campaigns: the first along the Lualaba River, between Kisangani and Kirundu (Nieblas Ramirez et al. 2023), the second in the wider region around Isangi (Nieblas Ramirez et al. 2023), and the third in the Basoko area plus interviews on ceramic traditions in Banalia (Vutseme et al. 2024). The excavations along the lower Lualaba enabled us to extend the first expansion into the Congo Basin to the South of Kisangani. Other sites in the same area enabled us to extend a subsequent major cultural change beyond the Boyoma Falls at Kisangani. However, more recently, the arrival of new techniques pushed the techniques specific to the mentioned cultural change back to the area between Basoko and Kisangani. The excavations and interviews during the second and third fieldwork campaigns allowed for a better understanding of the cultural evolutions over the last 2 millennia in the Basoko-Isangi region. Most importantly, a new date situates the cultural change earlier, more than 1 millennium ago. Archaeobotanical material is currently studied by Louis Champion (IRD), the archaeo-ichthyological material by Laurent Nieblas Ramirez (ULB).
The BANTURIVERS team organized two international conferences. The first focused on methodology (Extracting the Past from the Present, March 1st – 5th, 2021, online, proceedings: Ricquier et al. 2023). The second conference revolved around the project’s research results (Social spaces, languages, and material culture in the history of the northern Congo Basin, 17th-21st June 2024, University of Kisangani). It was the first international conference in human sciences at the University of Kisangani. The conference proceedings will be published in an edited volume along with the research results of the project (Lambertz et al. in progress).
We collected vernacular histories in 2019-2020 but reverted to the archives during the COVID-19 pandemic. Combined with linguistic results, this provided new insights into the precolonial history of the lower Lualaba (Ricquier et al. 2023). The anthropological fieldwork truly started off in 2022, in Mbole villages in Opala and Isangi Territory, villages around Basoko, and Mokpa villages at the Lualaba River. The anthropologists documented boat construction types, the use of specific fish traps, a collective and socially important fishing technique named “scooping” and the plastification of fish net weights.
The archaeological fieldwork consisted of three campaigns: the first along the Lualaba River, between Kisangani and Kirundu (Nieblas Ramirez et al. 2023), the second in the wider region around Isangi (Nieblas Ramirez et al. 2023), and the third in the Basoko area plus interviews on ceramic traditions in Banalia (Vutseme et al. 2024). The excavations along the lower Lualaba enabled us to extend the first expansion into the Congo Basin to the South of Kisangani. Other sites in the same area enabled us to extend a subsequent major cultural change beyond the Boyoma Falls at Kisangani. However, more recently, the arrival of new techniques pushed the techniques specific to the mentioned cultural change back to the area between Basoko and Kisangani. The excavations and interviews during the second and third fieldwork campaigns allowed for a better understanding of the cultural evolutions over the last 2 millennia in the Basoko-Isangi region. Most importantly, a new date situates the cultural change earlier, more than 1 millennium ago. Archaeobotanical material is currently studied by Louis Champion (IRD), the archaeo-ichthyological material by Laurent Nieblas Ramirez (ULB).
The BANTURIVERS team organized two international conferences. The first focused on methodology (Extracting the Past from the Present, March 1st – 5th, 2021, online, proceedings: Ricquier et al. 2023). The second conference revolved around the project’s research results (Social spaces, languages, and material culture in the history of the northern Congo Basin, 17th-21st June 2024, University of Kisangani). It was the first international conference in human sciences at the University of Kisangani. The conference proceedings will be published in an edited volume along with the research results of the project (Lambertz et al. in progress).
Thanks to the new data for Bantu languages of the eastern Congo Basin, the BANTURIVERS project obtained a finer classification for the Bantu subgroups of the northeastern DRC and proposed important modifications to the most recent Bantu tree. New insights were also obtained for languages south of the region of focus, i.e. around Kasongo. A more detailed study of the vocabulary and its regional distribution allowed us to question phylogenetic results, with an important impact on the Bantu tree and on insights concerning the Bantu Expansions.
Concerning language contact, we are the first to propose insights into the history of the Bantu languages spoken between Kisangani and Lowa. Via the study of specific phonemes (labial-velars) and lexicon, we uncovered parts of history that were previously unknown, not even mentioned in vernacular histories. The finding of substrate interference and long-term contact between specific language subgroups calls for a further review of the mentioned phylogenetic Bantu tree. The study of present language contact sheds better light on the threat of minority languages in this part of the DRC and the factors that cause or prevent language shift.
The combination of language classification, the study of language contact, vernacular histories and archaeology delivered new insights into the history of the Tshopo Province, covering over 2000 years, and the very first insights into the history of the region between Kisangani and Lowa. We discovered past communities whose identity is not known yet, but who were in any event not the (cultural) ancestors of the communities present in the region today.
The anthropological research on fishing and boat construction techniques documented the social aspects of these techniques and recent innovations. Related historical-linguistic research will be the first to provide a detailed history of this subsistence strategy in the Congo Basin.
Concerning language contact, we are the first to propose insights into the history of the Bantu languages spoken between Kisangani and Lowa. Via the study of specific phonemes (labial-velars) and lexicon, we uncovered parts of history that were previously unknown, not even mentioned in vernacular histories. The finding of substrate interference and long-term contact between specific language subgroups calls for a further review of the mentioned phylogenetic Bantu tree. The study of present language contact sheds better light on the threat of minority languages in this part of the DRC and the factors that cause or prevent language shift.
The combination of language classification, the study of language contact, vernacular histories and archaeology delivered new insights into the history of the Tshopo Province, covering over 2000 years, and the very first insights into the history of the region between Kisangani and Lowa. We discovered past communities whose identity is not known yet, but who were in any event not the (cultural) ancestors of the communities present in the region today.
The anthropological research on fishing and boat construction techniques documented the social aspects of these techniques and recent innovations. Related historical-linguistic research will be the first to provide a detailed history of this subsistence strategy in the Congo Basin.