Periodic Reporting for period 1 - SEXISM2022 (Contemporary Sexism - Nature, Prevalence, Consequences, and Strategic Use)
Période du rapport: 2021-09-01 au 2023-08-31
In the 21st century, sexism continues to be one of the most impactful aspects of women’s everyday lives, limiting them in manifold ways. Yet, very little is known about (1) the ways that sexism is expressed today, (2) how frequently women are exposed to sexist attitudes, and (3) what consequences this has for them.
When studying sexism, psychological research has mostly focused on hostile sexism (views of women as controlling and manipulative) and benevolent sexism (views of women as needing protection). Newer expressions of sexism, such as neoliberal sexism (attributing a lack of gender equality to women’s own choices) and belief in sexism shift (the belief that now men are the new ‘true’ victims of gender discrimination) have, thus far, been neglected.
Focusing on sexism at work, the goal of this project is to (1) identify contemporary manifestations of workplace sexism, (2) examine with which prevalence women experience sexism themselves and witness sexism against other women, and (3) understand the consequences of workplace sexism for women’s job satisfaction, self-esteem, and mental wellbeing. Moreover, this project seeks to understand how those who perpetrate sexism may do so strategically for their own benefits.
When studying sexism, psychological research has mostly focused on hostile sexism (views of women as controlling and manipulative) and benevolent sexism (views of women as needing protection). Newer expressions of sexism, such as neoliberal sexism (attributing a lack of gender equality to women’s own choices) and belief in sexism shift (the belief that now men are the new ‘true’ victims of gender discrimination) have, thus far, been neglected.
Focusing on sexism at work, the goal of this project is to (1) identify contemporary manifestations of workplace sexism, (2) examine with which prevalence women experience sexism themselves and witness sexism against other women, and (3) understand the consequences of workplace sexism for women’s job satisfaction, self-esteem, and mental wellbeing. Moreover, this project seeks to understand how those who perpetrate sexism may do so strategically for their own benefits.
To map contemporary manifestations of workplace sexism, we have developed the Workplace Sexism Screening Questionnaire that assesses women’s experiences with nine different types of workplace sexism. Notably, we did not only assess the most studied forms of sexism (hostile and benevolent sexism), but also newer and less studied forms of sexism (neoliberal sexism, belief in sexism shift). In several studies, we assessed the prevalence with which women were exposed to different types of sexism within their lifetime and within the past 12 months. We did not only assess how frequently women were the direct targets of sexism, but we also assessed how frequently they witnessed sexism against other women (vicarious sexism) and how frequently they had a general sense of being in a sexist work environment (ambient sexism).
Aiming to create a global map of workplace sexism, we are collaborating with researchers from more than 20 nations (e.g. Brazil, Turkey, Sweden, Poland) to learn more about women’s experiences with sexism at work.
Preliminary findings from five nations showed that women perceive the two most studied forms of sexism (hostile and benevolent sexism) as least prevalent in their workplaces. Instead, traditional sexism (views of women as homemakers) that many psychologists considered an attitude of the past in the Western world was surprisingly prevalent across all nations (also in the UK, US, and Sweden) and subtle traditional sexism (traditional sexism hidden behind concerns for children) was among the most prevalent forms of sexism. Newer and less studied form of sexism, such as neoliberal sexism and belief in sexism shit, were also highly prevalent in women’s workplaces.
Mapping sexism over time, we text-mined more than 2,000 leader obituaries published in newspapers between 1953 and 2019. We found that, over time, female leaders were described increasingly like men leaders, but continued to be evaluated differently (as less likable and less respectable), especially in men-dominated professions.
Investigating the strategic use of sexism, we examined whether men would use the sexist trope of ‘quota woman’ (perceptions of female beneficiaries of gender quotas as incompetent) to hide their own self-interest. Indeed, we found that (1) overall, men tended to be more concerned that gender quotas stigmatize women as incompetent than women themselves, and (2) the concerns for women were predicted by men’s own concerns of loosing out on work opportunities because of gender quotas.
Aiming to create a global map of workplace sexism, we are collaborating with researchers from more than 20 nations (e.g. Brazil, Turkey, Sweden, Poland) to learn more about women’s experiences with sexism at work.
Preliminary findings from five nations showed that women perceive the two most studied forms of sexism (hostile and benevolent sexism) as least prevalent in their workplaces. Instead, traditional sexism (views of women as homemakers) that many psychologists considered an attitude of the past in the Western world was surprisingly prevalent across all nations (also in the UK, US, and Sweden) and subtle traditional sexism (traditional sexism hidden behind concerns for children) was among the most prevalent forms of sexism. Newer and less studied form of sexism, such as neoliberal sexism and belief in sexism shit, were also highly prevalent in women’s workplaces.
Mapping sexism over time, we text-mined more than 2,000 leader obituaries published in newspapers between 1953 and 2019. We found that, over time, female leaders were described increasingly like men leaders, but continued to be evaluated differently (as less likable and less respectable), especially in men-dominated professions.
Investigating the strategic use of sexism, we examined whether men would use the sexist trope of ‘quota woman’ (perceptions of female beneficiaries of gender quotas as incompetent) to hide their own self-interest. Indeed, we found that (1) overall, men tended to be more concerned that gender quotas stigmatize women as incompetent than women themselves, and (2) the concerns for women were predicted by men’s own concerns of loosing out on work opportunities because of gender quotas.
Contributing to the state of the art, this research project contributed several novel insights:
(1) After psychological research on sexism has almost exclusively focused on hostile and benevolent sexism and largely ignored other forms of sexism, this project found that women perceive the two most studied forms of sexism as least prevalent in their workplaces.
(2) Traditional sexism that that many psychologists considered ‘outdated’, at least in Western nations, is perceived by women across all nations (including the UK, US, and Sweden) and subtle traditional sexism (traditional sexism hidden behind concerns for children) is among the most prevalent forms of sexism.
(3) Newer and less studied form of sexism, such as neoliberal sexism and belief in sexism shift, were highly prevalent in women’s workplaces.
(4) Sexism is not only associated with negative consequences (e.g. reduced job satisfaction, self-esteem and mental wellbeing) when women are the direct target of sexism, but also when women witness sexism against other women (vicarious sexism) and when women get a general sense of being in a sexist work environment (ambient sexism).
(5) Studying sexism over time (1953-2019), this project found that female leaders were described increasingly similar to male leaders, but continued to be evaluated as less likable and less respectable, in particular in men-dominated professions.
(6) This project is also first to suggest that men may use the sexist trop of ‘quota women’ for their own benefit. Men were more likely concerned that gender quotas stigmatize women as incompetent than women themselves, and men’s concerns for women were predicted by their concerns of loosing out on work opportunities because of gender quotas.
(1) After psychological research on sexism has almost exclusively focused on hostile and benevolent sexism and largely ignored other forms of sexism, this project found that women perceive the two most studied forms of sexism as least prevalent in their workplaces.
(2) Traditional sexism that that many psychologists considered ‘outdated’, at least in Western nations, is perceived by women across all nations (including the UK, US, and Sweden) and subtle traditional sexism (traditional sexism hidden behind concerns for children) is among the most prevalent forms of sexism.
(3) Newer and less studied form of sexism, such as neoliberal sexism and belief in sexism shift, were highly prevalent in women’s workplaces.
(4) Sexism is not only associated with negative consequences (e.g. reduced job satisfaction, self-esteem and mental wellbeing) when women are the direct target of sexism, but also when women witness sexism against other women (vicarious sexism) and when women get a general sense of being in a sexist work environment (ambient sexism).
(5) Studying sexism over time (1953-2019), this project found that female leaders were described increasingly similar to male leaders, but continued to be evaluated as less likable and less respectable, in particular in men-dominated professions.
(6) This project is also first to suggest that men may use the sexist trop of ‘quota women’ for their own benefit. Men were more likely concerned that gender quotas stigmatize women as incompetent than women themselves, and men’s concerns for women were predicted by their concerns of loosing out on work opportunities because of gender quotas.