Periodic Reporting for period 1 - NetFoodIt (Networking food plant imports in Roman Italy)
Reporting period: 2022-12-01 to 2024-11-30
Summary of the context and overall objectives of the project
The NetFoodIt initiative aimed to explore the intersection of Roman food commerce and socioeconomic dynamics, focusing on the introduction and spread of new food plants across modern-day mainland Italy. As Rome expanded, technical advancements facilitated more frequent and accessible connections with distant regions, including the introduction of new food plants.
Despite their potential, introduced food plants have been underutilized as proxies for analyzing commerce in the Roman world. Traditional research has predominantly centered on roads, inscriptions, pottery, and other material culture. However, food plants offer a different altogether perspective due to their perishable nature and their status, often as luxury items, that allow insights into the sociocultural and economic factors that influenced their accessibility and adoption.
Dr. Livarda’s pioneering work laid the groundwork for studying introduced food plants as markers of trade. Her database of such plants in Roman northwestern Europe offered an initial view of their access and distribution in the provinces. Later, Drs. Livarda and Orengo expanded this approach to explore Roman Britain’s urbanization processes and their influence on modern population patterns. Yet, few studies have followed this methodology, and most have combined other proxies with transport network analyses.
In recent years, research into food plant circulation in Italy has progressed through initiatives like the Botanical Records of Archaeobotany Italian Network (BRAIN). Established in 2015 by Mercuri et al., BRAIN compiles archaeobotanical data from Italian archaeological sites, enabling comprehensive studies of Roman foodways. For example, Bosi et al. (2020, 2023) conducted regional analyses, while Rottoli and Castiglioni (2011) focused on burial sites in northern Italy.
Feito’s 2022 study examined plant macroremains from 100 Italian sites spanning the 5th century BC to the 5th century AD. The findings highlighted agricultural diversity and the distribution of key crops like grapes and olives. Similarly, Bosi et al. (2023) analyzed macroremains from 155 northern Italian sites dating from the 2nd century BC to the 12th century AD. Their findings emphasize the evolution of food practices over time in this area and the role of newly introduced species in reshaping diets.
NetFoodIt aimed to build upon previous research, update it and combine it with the investigation of food movement and commerce to deepen our understanding of Roman food economy and associated sociocultural dynamics. By synthesizing data on food plant origins, distribution, and network, this initiative offered a different perspective on foodways during one of history’s most dynamic periods. NetFoodIt determined which food plants were introduced in Italy during the Roman period and when, by a relational object-oriented geo-database of introduced food-plants in Roman Italy, prepared to be used in standard GIS software and queried with advanced data analysis methods.
Despite their potential, introduced food plants have been underutilized as proxies for analyzing commerce in the Roman world. Traditional research has predominantly centered on roads, inscriptions, pottery, and other material culture. However, food plants offer a different altogether perspective due to their perishable nature and their status, often as luxury items, that allow insights into the sociocultural and economic factors that influenced their accessibility and adoption.
Dr. Livarda’s pioneering work laid the groundwork for studying introduced food plants as markers of trade. Her database of such plants in Roman northwestern Europe offered an initial view of their access and distribution in the provinces. Later, Drs. Livarda and Orengo expanded this approach to explore Roman Britain’s urbanization processes and their influence on modern population patterns. Yet, few studies have followed this methodology, and most have combined other proxies with transport network analyses.
In recent years, research into food plant circulation in Italy has progressed through initiatives like the Botanical Records of Archaeobotany Italian Network (BRAIN). Established in 2015 by Mercuri et al., BRAIN compiles archaeobotanical data from Italian archaeological sites, enabling comprehensive studies of Roman foodways. For example, Bosi et al. (2020, 2023) conducted regional analyses, while Rottoli and Castiglioni (2011) focused on burial sites in northern Italy.
Feito’s 2022 study examined plant macroremains from 100 Italian sites spanning the 5th century BC to the 5th century AD. The findings highlighted agricultural diversity and the distribution of key crops like grapes and olives. Similarly, Bosi et al. (2023) analyzed macroremains from 155 northern Italian sites dating from the 2nd century BC to the 12th century AD. Their findings emphasize the evolution of food practices over time in this area and the role of newly introduced species in reshaping diets.
NetFoodIt aimed to build upon previous research, update it and combine it with the investigation of food movement and commerce to deepen our understanding of Roman food economy and associated sociocultural dynamics. By synthesizing data on food plant origins, distribution, and network, this initiative offered a different perspective on foodways during one of history’s most dynamic periods. NetFoodIt determined which food plants were introduced in Italy during the Roman period and when, by a relational object-oriented geo-database of introduced food-plants in Roman Italy, prepared to be used in standard GIS software and queried with advanced data analysis methods.
Work performed from the beginning of the project to the end of the period covered by the report and main results achieved so far
Dr Riso has developed and analysed a relational, object-oriented geo-database focused on staple, native, and introduced food plants in Roman Italy. This initiative sought to deepen our understanding of food distribution and accessibility within the Roman food network.
The initial stage of the project was dedicated to planning and setup. Dr. Riso collaborated closely with her supervisor and mentor to create a data management plan (D1.1) and a career development plan (D1.2) ensuring a structured approach to the research. The geo-database was developed in two primary phases:
• Database Design: tailored specifically to the project’s needs, the design phase laid the foundation for a robust and functional database.
• Data Collection: Dr. Riso embarked on extensive research, gathering data from various libraries and institutions across Italy. The result, D2.1 is a comprehensive repository of introduced food plants in Roman Italy.
Accessing the necessary reports presented significant challenges. Many reports were not available online and were instead housed in physical archives, local libraries, or archaeological services scattered across Italy. Numerous documents were part of discontinued journals or local history books, often held in smaller, less accessible libraries. This required personal visits to archives and libraries in cities, such as Modena, Bologna, Ravenna, Padova, and Venice. In some cases, reports had to be directly requested from their authors. This labor-intensive process led to delays but ultimately resulted in a highly detailed and valuable database, which was fully assessed to ensure that no mistakes were made in its compilation.
Dr. Riso’s work extended beyond data collection. She created a digital repository of carpological research on Roman Italy, enhancing the project’s scholarly impact. This repository facilitated an analysis of the distribution of introduced food plants across different sites and contexts, reflecting the pace of Roman expansion and territorial integration. Additionally, the project produced digital graphs for various periods, illustrating for various periods, illustrating both geographical and chronological differences in the distribution of various site types and archaeobotanical remains.
During a short stay at the University of Bologna, Dr. Riso worked with Prof. Marzano, one of the major experts in Roman Economy. She also took an archaeobotany course with Prof. Marchesini at the Centro Agricoltura e Ambiente (CAA) in Bologna. These opportunities, in combination with the training received from her supervisory team at the host institution, honed her skills in Italian archaeobotany and deepened her understanding of preservation challenges and identification issues. These insights have significantly informed the interpretation of her findings.
Despite unexpected challenges in data collection, which delayed the completion of the planned network analysis, the project’s accomplishments are noteworthy. The geo-database and digital repository provide a solid foundation for future food studies across Italy. The integration of the results highlighted the potential for interdisciplinary approaches to Roman foodways, offering valuable tools for exploring the interplay between foodways, food movement, and socio-economic dynamics in the Roman Empire. This effort has set the stage for more comprehensive analyses of Roman food systems in the years to come.
The initial stage of the project was dedicated to planning and setup. Dr. Riso collaborated closely with her supervisor and mentor to create a data management plan (D1.1) and a career development plan (D1.2) ensuring a structured approach to the research. The geo-database was developed in two primary phases:
• Database Design: tailored specifically to the project’s needs, the design phase laid the foundation for a robust and functional database.
• Data Collection: Dr. Riso embarked on extensive research, gathering data from various libraries and institutions across Italy. The result, D2.1 is a comprehensive repository of introduced food plants in Roman Italy.
Accessing the necessary reports presented significant challenges. Many reports were not available online and were instead housed in physical archives, local libraries, or archaeological services scattered across Italy. Numerous documents were part of discontinued journals or local history books, often held in smaller, less accessible libraries. This required personal visits to archives and libraries in cities, such as Modena, Bologna, Ravenna, Padova, and Venice. In some cases, reports had to be directly requested from their authors. This labor-intensive process led to delays but ultimately resulted in a highly detailed and valuable database, which was fully assessed to ensure that no mistakes were made in its compilation.
Dr. Riso’s work extended beyond data collection. She created a digital repository of carpological research on Roman Italy, enhancing the project’s scholarly impact. This repository facilitated an analysis of the distribution of introduced food plants across different sites and contexts, reflecting the pace of Roman expansion and territorial integration. Additionally, the project produced digital graphs for various periods, illustrating for various periods, illustrating both geographical and chronological differences in the distribution of various site types and archaeobotanical remains.
During a short stay at the University of Bologna, Dr. Riso worked with Prof. Marzano, one of the major experts in Roman Economy. She also took an archaeobotany course with Prof. Marchesini at the Centro Agricoltura e Ambiente (CAA) in Bologna. These opportunities, in combination with the training received from her supervisory team at the host institution, honed her skills in Italian archaeobotany and deepened her understanding of preservation challenges and identification issues. These insights have significantly informed the interpretation of her findings.
Despite unexpected challenges in data collection, which delayed the completion of the planned network analysis, the project’s accomplishments are noteworthy. The geo-database and digital repository provide a solid foundation for future food studies across Italy. The integration of the results highlighted the potential for interdisciplinary approaches to Roman foodways, offering valuable tools for exploring the interplay between foodways, food movement, and socio-economic dynamics in the Roman Empire. This effort has set the stage for more comprehensive analyses of Roman food systems in the years to come.
Progress beyond the state of the art and expected potential impact (including the socio-economic impact and the wider societal implications of the project so far)
The comprehensive dataset compiled for this study offers valuable insights into the food plants and their socio-economic roles, as well as broader archaeobotanical trends in Italy from the 5th century BC to the 5th century AD. Both cultivated and wild food plants were systematically recorded, with each entry detailing the level of plant identification, specific plant parts, and preservation methods (e.g. carbonized, waterlogged, mineralized) as well as detailed contextual information. Over 250 archaeological sites across Italy were surveyed, resulting in a dataset that includes 115 plant species analysed for their archaeobotanical significance.
The dataset was assessed for its strengths and limitations, revealing key patterns of plant usage according to chronological, geographical, and social distributions. These patterns provide a window into the dietary practices of different social groups during the Roman period.
The geographical spread of archaeobotanical sites reveals a marked concentration in northern Italy, but the southern and central regions are also represented. This distribution pattern aligns with observations by Mercuri et al. (2015) and Feito (2022), confirming that the previously identified trends persist. Sites pertaining to studies from the islands (Sicily and Sardinia) were also included in the current project.
The chronological distribution of the food plants shows that the Early Roman Imperial phase dominates, followed by the Republican period. The middle and late Roman Imperial phases are the least represented, underscoring potential research gaps.
Data distribution by site type highlights distinct patterns. Rural and urban sites are represented by similar numbers of records. Ceremonial sites, however, dominate and only a few sites represent shipwrecks.
When broken down by chronological period, ceremonial sites are predominant in the Republican and Early Roman periods. The Early Roman period exhibits the highest imbalance among site types, with ceremonial burial sites significantly outnumbering others. By contrast, the middle and late Roman periods show greater balance across site types, albeit with small variations.
Detailed analysis of site types per period reflects trends in urbanization and settlement across Italy. During the Republican period, ceremonial sites dominate, while nucleated settlements constitute the majority of rural sites. Among urban sites, major towns feature prominently. In the Early Roman period, ceremonial burial sites become overwhelmingly dominant. Urban sites are mainly represented by major towns and Coloniae, while rural sites include both elite and non-elite settlements. The presence of shipwreck records introduces a unique context not observed in other periods. In the Middle Roman period, site types are represented more evenly, whereas in the Late Roman period, rural élite sites, Coloniae, and municipia show slight increases in representation.
The database encompasses 115 taxa, including 254 sites, 1691 contexts, and 2671 individual samples. These food plants were categorized into seven groups: cereals, fruits, nuts, legumes, vegetables, oil-producing plants, and condiments. Cereals, fruits, nuts, and legumes are the most ubiquitous, consistent with their importance in Roman diets. Vegetables and flavorings occur less frequently, likely due to their perishability or reduced prominence in the archaeological record. Of the plant remains, 73% are carbonized, while only 16.5% are waterlogged, reflecting preservation biases and sampling methods.
Each period introduces new species, often associated with specific site types (urban, rural and ceremonial). For example, Hordeum vulgare (barley) emerges as the dominant cereal across all contexts—urban, ceremonial, and rural—highlighting its broad significance in Roman diets. Triticum aestivum/durum (free-threshing wheat) consistently follows as a key staple, with Triticum dicoccum (emmer wheat) playing a notable but slightly lesser role. Vitis sp. (grapevine) emerges as the most dominant fruit across urban, ceremonial, and rural contexts, reflecting its significant role in Roman diets and rituals, particularly its association with wine and religious practices. In urban contexts, grapevine is followed by Olea europaea (olive) and Ficus carica (fig). Exotic fruits, such as Punica granatum (pomegranade), Phoenix dactylifera (date palm) and Diospyros lotus (date plum) highlight urban élite preferences.
Juglans regia (walnut) is the most dominant nut across all contexts, with the highest frequency in ceremonial settings and slightly lower representation in rural areas. Corylus avellana (hazelnut) consistently ranks second, showing significant presence in both ceremonial and rural contexts, though with fewer occurrences than walnut. Pinus pinea (pine nut) is moderately represented in ceremonial settings but appears much less frequently in rural areas. Prunus dulcis (almond) and Pistacia lentiscus (pistachio), are occasionally found.
Vicia faba (fava bean) is the most dominant legume in urban, rural, and ceremonial contexts, with its highest presence in ceremonial settings, indicating its ritual significance. It remains a staple in rural areas and urban diets. Lens sp. (lentil) consistently ranks as the second most common legume across all contexts, highlighting its role as an important dietary staple. Other legumes, such as Pisum sativum (pea) and Vicia sativa (common vetch), show moderate representation in rural and urban settings. Less frequently found species, include Vicia ervilia (bitter vetch), Ceratonia siliqua (carob) and Cicer arietinum (chickpea).
New introductions provide insights into evolving networks and the integration of introduced plants into Roman diets. During the Early Roman Empire some species like Lagenaria siceraria, Castanea sativa and some rare foods like Diospyros lotus, Ziziphus lotus, Phoenix dactylifera, were introduced. Luxury foods also started to circulate, especially fruits, such as Phoenix dactylifera, Cucumis melo/sativus, Citrullus lanatus, Cydonia oblonga, Prunus amygdalus and Punica granatum. Prunus persica appear in the Middle Roman period. This surge in fruit cultivation was closely tied to the expansion of the Roman Empire, which facilitated the movement of goods, people, and improved transport and food preservation methods. During the Late Roman period there is the introduction of Sorghum bicolor/vulgare; Vigna unguiculata appeared, though it was not widely adopted, meanwhile, Prunus cerasus began to outnumber Prunus avium.
The ongoing collaboration for this project seeks to further explore trade networks and the factors driving the adoption of introduced plants. This research endeavours to add a nuanced understanding of Roman foodways, shedding light on dietary trends and their transformations over time. It identifies key social agents behind the integration of new food plants into Roman diets, illuminating the dynamic interplay between food, trade, and society. The findings open new avenues for studying the socio-economic and cultural fabric of the Roman Empire.
The dataset was assessed for its strengths and limitations, revealing key patterns of plant usage according to chronological, geographical, and social distributions. These patterns provide a window into the dietary practices of different social groups during the Roman period.
The geographical spread of archaeobotanical sites reveals a marked concentration in northern Italy, but the southern and central regions are also represented. This distribution pattern aligns with observations by Mercuri et al. (2015) and Feito (2022), confirming that the previously identified trends persist. Sites pertaining to studies from the islands (Sicily and Sardinia) were also included in the current project.
The chronological distribution of the food plants shows that the Early Roman Imperial phase dominates, followed by the Republican period. The middle and late Roman Imperial phases are the least represented, underscoring potential research gaps.
Data distribution by site type highlights distinct patterns. Rural and urban sites are represented by similar numbers of records. Ceremonial sites, however, dominate and only a few sites represent shipwrecks.
When broken down by chronological period, ceremonial sites are predominant in the Republican and Early Roman periods. The Early Roman period exhibits the highest imbalance among site types, with ceremonial burial sites significantly outnumbering others. By contrast, the middle and late Roman periods show greater balance across site types, albeit with small variations.
Detailed analysis of site types per period reflects trends in urbanization and settlement across Italy. During the Republican period, ceremonial sites dominate, while nucleated settlements constitute the majority of rural sites. Among urban sites, major towns feature prominently. In the Early Roman period, ceremonial burial sites become overwhelmingly dominant. Urban sites are mainly represented by major towns and Coloniae, while rural sites include both elite and non-elite settlements. The presence of shipwreck records introduces a unique context not observed in other periods. In the Middle Roman period, site types are represented more evenly, whereas in the Late Roman period, rural élite sites, Coloniae, and municipia show slight increases in representation.
The database encompasses 115 taxa, including 254 sites, 1691 contexts, and 2671 individual samples. These food plants were categorized into seven groups: cereals, fruits, nuts, legumes, vegetables, oil-producing plants, and condiments. Cereals, fruits, nuts, and legumes are the most ubiquitous, consistent with their importance in Roman diets. Vegetables and flavorings occur less frequently, likely due to their perishability or reduced prominence in the archaeological record. Of the plant remains, 73% are carbonized, while only 16.5% are waterlogged, reflecting preservation biases and sampling methods.
Each period introduces new species, often associated with specific site types (urban, rural and ceremonial). For example, Hordeum vulgare (barley) emerges as the dominant cereal across all contexts—urban, ceremonial, and rural—highlighting its broad significance in Roman diets. Triticum aestivum/durum (free-threshing wheat) consistently follows as a key staple, with Triticum dicoccum (emmer wheat) playing a notable but slightly lesser role. Vitis sp. (grapevine) emerges as the most dominant fruit across urban, ceremonial, and rural contexts, reflecting its significant role in Roman diets and rituals, particularly its association with wine and religious practices. In urban contexts, grapevine is followed by Olea europaea (olive) and Ficus carica (fig). Exotic fruits, such as Punica granatum (pomegranade), Phoenix dactylifera (date palm) and Diospyros lotus (date plum) highlight urban élite preferences.
Juglans regia (walnut) is the most dominant nut across all contexts, with the highest frequency in ceremonial settings and slightly lower representation in rural areas. Corylus avellana (hazelnut) consistently ranks second, showing significant presence in both ceremonial and rural contexts, though with fewer occurrences than walnut. Pinus pinea (pine nut) is moderately represented in ceremonial settings but appears much less frequently in rural areas. Prunus dulcis (almond) and Pistacia lentiscus (pistachio), are occasionally found.
Vicia faba (fava bean) is the most dominant legume in urban, rural, and ceremonial contexts, with its highest presence in ceremonial settings, indicating its ritual significance. It remains a staple in rural areas and urban diets. Lens sp. (lentil) consistently ranks as the second most common legume across all contexts, highlighting its role as an important dietary staple. Other legumes, such as Pisum sativum (pea) and Vicia sativa (common vetch), show moderate representation in rural and urban settings. Less frequently found species, include Vicia ervilia (bitter vetch), Ceratonia siliqua (carob) and Cicer arietinum (chickpea).
New introductions provide insights into evolving networks and the integration of introduced plants into Roman diets. During the Early Roman Empire some species like Lagenaria siceraria, Castanea sativa and some rare foods like Diospyros lotus, Ziziphus lotus, Phoenix dactylifera, were introduced. Luxury foods also started to circulate, especially fruits, such as Phoenix dactylifera, Cucumis melo/sativus, Citrullus lanatus, Cydonia oblonga, Prunus amygdalus and Punica granatum. Prunus persica appear in the Middle Roman period. This surge in fruit cultivation was closely tied to the expansion of the Roman Empire, which facilitated the movement of goods, people, and improved transport and food preservation methods. During the Late Roman period there is the introduction of Sorghum bicolor/vulgare; Vigna unguiculata appeared, though it was not widely adopted, meanwhile, Prunus cerasus began to outnumber Prunus avium.
The ongoing collaboration for this project seeks to further explore trade networks and the factors driving the adoption of introduced plants. This research endeavours to add a nuanced understanding of Roman foodways, shedding light on dietary trends and their transformations over time. It identifies key social agents behind the integration of new food plants into Roman diets, illuminating the dynamic interplay between food, trade, and society. The findings open new avenues for studying the socio-economic and cultural fabric of the Roman Empire.