During its implementation, N-GINE has achieved several key scientific milestones. One of the project’s main achievements is the development of the first retrieval framework capable of deducing an exoplanet’s internal composition directly from observable quantities such as its mass, radius and atmospheric properties. This model introduces an innovative parameter known as the Love number, which describes how a planet deforms under the gravitational pull of its star. The new framework represents a world-first and establishes a new methodology for understanding the deep interiors of planets far beyond our Solar System.
Another major success concerns the composition of Neptune, one of the least understood planets in our Solar System. By adapting models originally developed for Jupiter and Saturn, the N-GINE team discovered that Neptune’s envelope is likely dominated by rocky material rather than ices, as was long believed. This unexpected result, marks a paradigm shift in planetary science and challenges decades of assumptions about the “ice giants.”
The project has also solved a long-standing mystery about why Jupiter and Saturn rotate in one direction while Uranus and Neptune rotate in the opposite. Through advanced simulations and theoretical modelling, N-GINE developed the first unified theory of atmospheric circulation capable of explaining this behaviour. The results, published in Science Advances, resolve a question that had remained unanswered for decades and offer new insights applicable to exoplanet atmospheres as well.
In addition, the team demonstrated how atmospheric escape (the loss of light gases such as hydrogen and helium) can enrich planets in heavy elements over time, shaping their observed properties. This research, associated with a highly competitive joint JWST–HST observing program, will lead to the first young exoplanet ever observed by all major space telescopes currently in operation.
Beyond its scientific breakthroughs, N-GINE has produced valuable community resources, including open-access opacity tables for Jupiter and Saturn and publicly available codes hosted on GitHub. The project’s results have been presented at major international conferences such as Exoplanets V, Exoclimes, EGU, EPSC–DPS and COSPAR, ensuring global visibility and impact.
The ERC funding has also enabled the creation of a strong, international, interdisciplinary research group. The team now includes postdoctoral researchers and students working on both Solar System and exoplanet science, generating a collaborative environment that fosters innovation and discovery.
