Periodic Reporting for period 1 - SEAMS (a Study of Egyptian Animal Mummy Styles)
Período documentado: 2023-11-01 hasta 2025-10-31
Votive animal mummies are extraordinary expressions of ancient Egyptian religious beliefs and craftsmanship. From the Third Intermediate Period through to the Roman Period (c. 1069 BCE–4th century CE), millions of these votive offerings were produced to meet the growing demand of worshippers, who dedicated them to specific deities in the hope of securing divine favour. As with other ritually charged objects, the ritual transformation of these offerings was accomplished through the act of wrapping, which constituted the true medium of sacralisation. Through the wrapping process, the animal mummy was transformed into a sacred being, whose soul was believed to retain mobility between the earthly and divine worlds, thereby acting as an intermediary responsible for conveying pilgrims’ prayers, requests, and complaints directly to the gods, eliciting divine attention and, potentially, divine intervention.
At the same time, wrappings stand at the core of the material construction of votive animal mummies. While protecting the animal remains, they shaped an idealised version of the animal’s form, immediately recognisable to both the donor and the deity to whom it was dedicated. Concurrently, they acted as “time capsules”, preserving traces of the technological choices, stylistic conventions, and regional practices of the skilled craftspeople who produced them.
Despite their importance in shaping both the material aspect and the sacred transformation of votive animal mummies, textile wrappings have long been marginalised within Egyptological research, which often considered them primarily in aesthetic terms, rather than as a source of technological and cultural information. Only in recent years have they begun to receive the attention they deserve, prompting a re-evaluation of wrappings as a purposeful and technologically significant category of evidence. However, these studies have generally been restricted to selected groups of mummies drawn from specific cemeteries, collections, and/or animal species, and examined mainly through visual inspection. While this approach continues to serve as a valuable research starting point, it often falls short of fully capturing the structural and symbolic complexity of the wrapping process. This has led to a fragmented understanding of bundle shapes and decorative patterns. As a result, wrappings have frequently been described using vague and imprecise terminology that fails to account for their actual construction and internal logic. In turn, this has contributed to considerable confusion and inconsistency in the limited attempts at classification, underscoring the need for a more systematic, rigorous, and coherent study.
A Study of Egyptian Animal Mummy Styles (SEAMS) represents a significant step forward in addressing this gap. The project goes beyond traditional visual inspection by adopting an interdisciplinary, non-invasive diagnostic methodology that combines conventional approaches with an integrated suite of advanced technologies, each selected to investigate specific aspects of the wrapping sequence, across a broad, multi-collection sample of votive animal mummies. In doing so, SEAMS aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of wrapping manufacture and to trace diachronic and geographic technological variations in the wrapping chaîne opératoire, thereby enabling the contextualisation of previously unprovenanced specimens within their original cultural settings.
In doing so, SEAMS contributes to advancing Egyptological research, supports museums in the documentation and interpretation of their collections, and establishes a methodological framework that can be transferred to the study of other complex, composite artefacts.
At the same time, wrappings stand at the core of the material construction of votive animal mummies. While protecting the animal remains, they shaped an idealised version of the animal’s form, immediately recognisable to both the donor and the deity to whom it was dedicated. Concurrently, they acted as “time capsules”, preserving traces of the technological choices, stylistic conventions, and regional practices of the skilled craftspeople who produced them.
Despite their importance in shaping both the material aspect and the sacred transformation of votive animal mummies, textile wrappings have long been marginalised within Egyptological research, which often considered them primarily in aesthetic terms, rather than as a source of technological and cultural information. Only in recent years have they begun to receive the attention they deserve, prompting a re-evaluation of wrappings as a purposeful and technologically significant category of evidence. However, these studies have generally been restricted to selected groups of mummies drawn from specific cemeteries, collections, and/or animal species, and examined mainly through visual inspection. While this approach continues to serve as a valuable research starting point, it often falls short of fully capturing the structural and symbolic complexity of the wrapping process. This has led to a fragmented understanding of bundle shapes and decorative patterns. As a result, wrappings have frequently been described using vague and imprecise terminology that fails to account for their actual construction and internal logic. In turn, this has contributed to considerable confusion and inconsistency in the limited attempts at classification, underscoring the need for a more systematic, rigorous, and coherent study.
A Study of Egyptian Animal Mummy Styles (SEAMS) represents a significant step forward in addressing this gap. The project goes beyond traditional visual inspection by adopting an interdisciplinary, non-invasive diagnostic methodology that combines conventional approaches with an integrated suite of advanced technologies, each selected to investigate specific aspects of the wrapping sequence, across a broad, multi-collection sample of votive animal mummies. In doing so, SEAMS aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of wrapping manufacture and to trace diachronic and geographic technological variations in the wrapping chaîne opératoire, thereby enabling the contextualisation of previously unprovenanced specimens within their original cultural settings.
In doing so, SEAMS contributes to advancing Egyptological research, supports museums in the documentation and interpretation of their collections, and establishes a methodological framework that can be transferred to the study of other complex, composite artefacts.
SEAMS developed and implemented a fully non-invasive diagnostic methodology to generate unbiased, diagnostic, and reliable data for the systematic study of votive animal mummy wrappings. The first stage of the workflow consisted of a digital investigation grounded in image-based modelling, enabling both geometric precision and high-resolution detail in the resulting three-dimensional models of the mummies. This approach significantly enhanced the legibility of the wrappings, whose fine details are often difficult to discern through traditional visual inspection due to the overlapping and interlacing of textile strips, as well as the poor state of preservation of many specimens. The disabling of uniform colouring and the virtual unwrapping of the meshes allowed the extraction of elaborate geometric features of the decorative designs and the subsequent creation of accurate line drawings, enabling a more detailed analysis of wrapping structures and techniques. This cutting-edge approach yields more robust and meaningful data than any form of two-dimensional visual inspection, as it fully accounts for the complexity and visual impact of the decorative modules.
Additional insight into the original wrapping designs was gained through the analysis of the nature and spatial distribution of colouring materials applied to the strips to create sophisticated decorative patterns and anatomical features. The identification of original colours is frequently compromised by a variety of degradation processes, which can hinder the correct interpretation of decorative schemes as they were originally conceived. To address this issue, the SEAMS project developed a non-invasive diagnostic protocol combining multispectral imaging (MSI) with fibre optic reflectance spectroscopy (FORS), enabling the accurate identification of colourants while avoiding any form of micro-invasive sampling. The results of this diagnostic investigation, integrated with the analysis of pattern morphology, provided reliable data on original design logic, wrapping techniques, and raw material choices, and facilitated meaningful comparisons across the examined corpus.
Further insights into bundle shaping and wrapping logic were obtained through textile analysis carried out using a holistic and multi-scalar analytical framework. This approach combined object-based in situ examination with complementary data-driven off-site investigation. This framework enables a meaningful understanding of the technical choices underlying the selection and positioning of different textile wrappings throughout the various stages of bundle construction; it also allows an assessment of the economic weight of the wrapping process, in terms of both the quantities of raw materials employed and the skilled labour required to shape and complete the bundles, and ultimately provides an exceptional window into ancient Egyptian craftsmanship.
A more nuanced assessment of wrapping craftsmanship was supported by the high-precision recording of experimental archaeology protocols, which led to the reconstruction of wrapping gesture sequences performed in a dedicated facility using a motion capture system (MOCAP). The reproduction of recurring patterns on three-dimensional surfaces allowed the identification of mandatory movements involved in producing decorative designs, the documentation of different construction techniques, and the mapping of the technical stages that formed the wrapping chaîne opératoire.
Lastly, a detailed morphometric analysis was carried out on the digitally vectorised 3D models, which served as precise geometric references for mapping and analysing wrapping systems. Linear and geodesic measurements of the overall dimensions, proportions, volumes, and geometries of both the bundles and the wrapping patterns decorating their outer surfaces highlighted formal and structural similarities, enabling the grouping of mummies into morphological and stylistic clusters and ultimately facilitating a deeper understanding of the construction logic underlying these complex designs.
Additional insight into the original wrapping designs was gained through the analysis of the nature and spatial distribution of colouring materials applied to the strips to create sophisticated decorative patterns and anatomical features. The identification of original colours is frequently compromised by a variety of degradation processes, which can hinder the correct interpretation of decorative schemes as they were originally conceived. To address this issue, the SEAMS project developed a non-invasive diagnostic protocol combining multispectral imaging (MSI) with fibre optic reflectance spectroscopy (FORS), enabling the accurate identification of colourants while avoiding any form of micro-invasive sampling. The results of this diagnostic investigation, integrated with the analysis of pattern morphology, provided reliable data on original design logic, wrapping techniques, and raw material choices, and facilitated meaningful comparisons across the examined corpus.
Further insights into bundle shaping and wrapping logic were obtained through textile analysis carried out using a holistic and multi-scalar analytical framework. This approach combined object-based in situ examination with complementary data-driven off-site investigation. This framework enables a meaningful understanding of the technical choices underlying the selection and positioning of different textile wrappings throughout the various stages of bundle construction; it also allows an assessment of the economic weight of the wrapping process, in terms of both the quantities of raw materials employed and the skilled labour required to shape and complete the bundles, and ultimately provides an exceptional window into ancient Egyptian craftsmanship.
A more nuanced assessment of wrapping craftsmanship was supported by the high-precision recording of experimental archaeology protocols, which led to the reconstruction of wrapping gesture sequences performed in a dedicated facility using a motion capture system (MOCAP). The reproduction of recurring patterns on three-dimensional surfaces allowed the identification of mandatory movements involved in producing decorative designs, the documentation of different construction techniques, and the mapping of the technical stages that formed the wrapping chaîne opératoire.
Lastly, a detailed morphometric analysis was carried out on the digitally vectorised 3D models, which served as precise geometric references for mapping and analysing wrapping systems. Linear and geodesic measurements of the overall dimensions, proportions, volumes, and geometries of both the bundles and the wrapping patterns decorating their outer surfaces highlighted formal and structural similarities, enabling the grouping of mummies into morphological and stylistic clusters and ultimately facilitating a deeper understanding of the construction logic underlying these complex designs.
The accurate and systematic approach developed within the SEAMS project laid the groundwork for the first systematic classification of bundle shapes, decorative pattern variants, and the technical procedures involved in their manufacture. This framework constitutes a conceptual tool that fosters knowledge transfer and facilitates interoperability among scholars working in this field. As such, it marks a significant advance beyond the state of the art, as it finally allows these long-overlooked artefacts to be studied within a coherent and comparative analytical system.
The wrapping construction techniques and the mandatory movements performed throughout the complex wrapping chaîne opératoire were brought to light during the reporting period. This made it possible to document the dynamics of wrapping gestures and to define the different stages of the wrapping sequence, thereby offering a deeper understanding of its construction logic than had ever been achieved before.
While attempting to describe these aspects, it became clear that the limited attention previously devoted to both human and animal mummy wrappings has led to the emergence of multiple terminologies that are often vague, incoherent, sometimes unintelligible, and, in certain respects, entirely absent. This repeatedly underscored the urgent need to define a consistent terminology for mummy wrappings, encompassing all aspects. To this end, a scientific spin-off of the SEAMS project, the SEAMS/CTR initiative Terminology for Egyptian Mummy Wrappings, is currently developing a precise, consistent, and semantically rich terminology for the description of both human and animal wrapping systems. The goal of this initiative is to create a standardised lexicon that will enhance research communication, promote data interoperability and reusability, and facilitate knowledge transfer through well-defined and intelligible terminology reflecting the full complexity of wrapping systems and their manufacture.
A further advance beyond previous studies was achieved by significantly widening the analytical sample in terms of animal species, production sites, and the current locations of the mummies. This multi-collection and multi-provenance investigation enabled more meaningful morphometric and stylistic comparisons between mummies grouped within the same wrapping class. The system allows large-scale cross-collection comparative studies, creating the conditions for identifying regional workshop traditions, diachronic trends, and technological consistencies in the manufacture of votive animal mummies. As a result, some specimens can now be contextualised more securely within their original cultural settings. Beyond advancing scholarly knowledge, this approach also contributes to the virtual reconstruction of archaeological contexts compromised by undocumented or unconventional excavations and provides museum curators with new, evidence-based insights into the history and significance of the artefacts in their care.
Another key merit of the SEAMS project lies in its move beyond visual inspection, in contrast to previous studies that relied almost exclusively on this approach. While visual analysis remains a valuable research starting point, it is often insufficient on its own to fully grasp the complexity of these decorative modules. SEAMS is grounded in an interdisciplinary methodology in which visual inspection serves as a preliminary examination phase, complemented by an evidence-based analysis conducted through an integrated suite of advanced technologies. Moreover, SEAMS workflow offers several key methodological advantages. First, its replicability: grounded in a clearly defined and standardised recording protocol, the methodology can be consistently applied across different museum collections and diverse categories of materials, enabling analyses to be reproduced with accuracy and transparency. Second, its interoperability and accessibility, as it relies on open, free, and European-community-endorsed systems, standards, and platforms, facilitating the integration of heterogeneous datasets. To further support this goal, the development of a terminological standardisation system provides a controlled vocabulary that enhances consistency, supports effective communication among researchers, and ensures the reliable transfer of information gathered during documentation.
Finally, the SEAMS project has restored scientific consideration to a category of material culture that had long been overlooked: the wrappings of votive animal mummies. By reinstating their full value both as expressions of material culture and as the true medium of sacralization, the project has offered these artefacts the scholarly attention they deserve and has firmly repositioned them within the broader framework of Egyptological research.
The wrapping construction techniques and the mandatory movements performed throughout the complex wrapping chaîne opératoire were brought to light during the reporting period. This made it possible to document the dynamics of wrapping gestures and to define the different stages of the wrapping sequence, thereby offering a deeper understanding of its construction logic than had ever been achieved before.
While attempting to describe these aspects, it became clear that the limited attention previously devoted to both human and animal mummy wrappings has led to the emergence of multiple terminologies that are often vague, incoherent, sometimes unintelligible, and, in certain respects, entirely absent. This repeatedly underscored the urgent need to define a consistent terminology for mummy wrappings, encompassing all aspects. To this end, a scientific spin-off of the SEAMS project, the SEAMS/CTR initiative Terminology for Egyptian Mummy Wrappings, is currently developing a precise, consistent, and semantically rich terminology for the description of both human and animal wrapping systems. The goal of this initiative is to create a standardised lexicon that will enhance research communication, promote data interoperability and reusability, and facilitate knowledge transfer through well-defined and intelligible terminology reflecting the full complexity of wrapping systems and their manufacture.
A further advance beyond previous studies was achieved by significantly widening the analytical sample in terms of animal species, production sites, and the current locations of the mummies. This multi-collection and multi-provenance investigation enabled more meaningful morphometric and stylistic comparisons between mummies grouped within the same wrapping class. The system allows large-scale cross-collection comparative studies, creating the conditions for identifying regional workshop traditions, diachronic trends, and technological consistencies in the manufacture of votive animal mummies. As a result, some specimens can now be contextualised more securely within their original cultural settings. Beyond advancing scholarly knowledge, this approach also contributes to the virtual reconstruction of archaeological contexts compromised by undocumented or unconventional excavations and provides museum curators with new, evidence-based insights into the history and significance of the artefacts in their care.
Another key merit of the SEAMS project lies in its move beyond visual inspection, in contrast to previous studies that relied almost exclusively on this approach. While visual analysis remains a valuable research starting point, it is often insufficient on its own to fully grasp the complexity of these decorative modules. SEAMS is grounded in an interdisciplinary methodology in which visual inspection serves as a preliminary examination phase, complemented by an evidence-based analysis conducted through an integrated suite of advanced technologies. Moreover, SEAMS workflow offers several key methodological advantages. First, its replicability: grounded in a clearly defined and standardised recording protocol, the methodology can be consistently applied across different museum collections and diverse categories of materials, enabling analyses to be reproduced with accuracy and transparency. Second, its interoperability and accessibility, as it relies on open, free, and European-community-endorsed systems, standards, and platforms, facilitating the integration of heterogeneous datasets. To further support this goal, the development of a terminological standardisation system provides a controlled vocabulary that enhances consistency, supports effective communication among researchers, and ensures the reliable transfer of information gathered during documentation.
Finally, the SEAMS project has restored scientific consideration to a category of material culture that had long been overlooked: the wrappings of votive animal mummies. By reinstating their full value both as expressions of material culture and as the true medium of sacralization, the project has offered these artefacts the scholarly attention they deserve and has firmly repositioned them within the broader framework of Egyptological research.