Periodic Reporting for period 1 - UnveilGBD (Investigating Gender-Based Discrimination: Unveiling the Underlying Mechanisms)
Reporting period: 2024-07-01 to 2026-06-30
Summary of the context and overall objectives of the project
According to Feminist theories that have approached Gender-Based Violence and Discrimination, social changes related to globalization intersect with etiologies of Violence Against Women, which causes no longer stop at national borders. Violence Against Women is one of the major public health crises globally, with World Health Organization data revealing that approximately one in three women worldwide has experienced violence. While much research has concentrated on the most immediate and dangerous forms of abuse, there is a growing interest in understanding the role of gender stereotypes. These stereotypes not only impact societal structures but also profoundly affect individual women.
Despite the cultural variations in the patterns of Gender-Based Violence, the global prevalence of this issue suggests that some underlying factors transcend cultural boundaries, allowing discriminatory stereotypes to persist. This global challenge has been acknowledged by the European Commission through initiatives such as the EU Strategy for Gender Equality 2020-2025. While immediate protective measures and knowledge-sharing platforms like the Mutual Learning Programme in Gender Equality are essential, it is equally crucial to investigate the deeper mechanisms underpinning implicit stereotypes
Building on the framework on implicit stereotypes of the “Culture in mind” and the “Predictive Brain” this research aims to develop and propose a trans-cultural model of Gender-Based Discrimination; by integrating Bronfenbrenner’s socio-ecological theory, as supported by recent studies in feminist criminology and victimology, we aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of how various factors interact to perpetuate Gender-Based Violence. According to this approach, Gender-Based Violence as a cultural problem can be explained on three levels:
1) an individual level (i.e. microsystem), which considers the individual characteristics of perpetrator and victim that may expose them to a greater risk of committing or being subjected to violence.
2) a community level (i.e. mesosystem), including the characteristics of the environment surrounding the victim and the perpetrator (work environment, neighborhood, frequented places).
3) a societal level (i.e. exosystem), which considers cultural characteristics in a broader sense (national but also trans-national).
The integrated social-ecological theory has evolved as a theoretical model for exploring the factors associated with Violence Against Women. Understanding the causes of violence helps create better prevention programs. There are many theoretical explanations of Violence Against Women, ranging from macro- level theories, which include sociocultural explanations, to micro-level theories, which include intra-individual and social psychological explanations. From previous studies on stereotypes, it has appeared that cognitive variables are among the factors that most influence the acceptance of stereotypes. Therefore, the primary research will investigate the relationship between basic cognitive functions (decision-making and emotion regulation and perpetuation of Gender-Based Discrimination through its implicit stereotypical manifestations.
This research will focus on exploring the cognitive and cultural factors that contribute to Gender-Based Discrimination. By examining elements such as emotion regulation, sexist beliefs, and the acceptance of gender stereotypes within the context of Bronfenbrenner's socio-ecological model, we aim to identify the individual and cultural influences on discriminatory behaviors. Furthermore, a comparative analysis between Italy and Lithuania will provide insights into how these factors manifest differently across cultural contexts. According to the UN Office on Drugs and Crime Global Study on Homicide (2019), Lithuania is among the 5 nations with the highest rate of feminicide as the most fatal abuse against women in Europe, hence the choice of this nation as the primary host for the research. Italy has developed its own victims’ protection mechanism becoming a party to the Istanbul Convention (CoE Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence, 2011) and according to EIGE’s Gender Equality Index, had the largest increase in overall score among all the Member States since 2010. While Italy has ratified the Istanbul Convention and developed robust victim protection mechanisms, Lithuania, despite being a signatory since 2013, has yet to ratify it. This difference presents a unique opportunity to study the specific mechanisms of Gender-Based Discrimination in varying legal and cultural frameworks. The findings from this comparative analysis will inform practical recommendations aimed at mitigating Gender-Based Violence and improving gender equality in both countries.
Therefore, the project aims to integrate into a single theoretical and ambitious model the factors that most seem to be related to adherence to gender stereotypes.
To achieve this aim, the project has four intermediate goals:
1) explore adherence to gender stereotypes in the reference sample.
2) identify the relationship between cognitive variables that lead to stereotypical thinking, to understand which ones are strongest.
3) investigate which models explain the relationships between cognitive variables and stereotypical thinking.
4) make a comparison between Italy and Lithuania to investigate possible cultural differences.
Although there are many studies on Gender-Based Violence and stereotypes, few have tried to unite the different three above mentioned levels. Therefore, the innovative model for stereotypes and Gender-Based Discrimination to be achieved through the research project, which could explain the influence and importance of the three systems in Gender-Based Violence could also be replicated internationally, with the necessary cultural adjustments for context-specific constructs.
Despite the cultural variations in the patterns of Gender-Based Violence, the global prevalence of this issue suggests that some underlying factors transcend cultural boundaries, allowing discriminatory stereotypes to persist. This global challenge has been acknowledged by the European Commission through initiatives such as the EU Strategy for Gender Equality 2020-2025. While immediate protective measures and knowledge-sharing platforms like the Mutual Learning Programme in Gender Equality are essential, it is equally crucial to investigate the deeper mechanisms underpinning implicit stereotypes
Building on the framework on implicit stereotypes of the “Culture in mind” and the “Predictive Brain” this research aims to develop and propose a trans-cultural model of Gender-Based Discrimination; by integrating Bronfenbrenner’s socio-ecological theory, as supported by recent studies in feminist criminology and victimology, we aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of how various factors interact to perpetuate Gender-Based Violence. According to this approach, Gender-Based Violence as a cultural problem can be explained on three levels:
1) an individual level (i.e. microsystem), which considers the individual characteristics of perpetrator and victim that may expose them to a greater risk of committing or being subjected to violence.
2) a community level (i.e. mesosystem), including the characteristics of the environment surrounding the victim and the perpetrator (work environment, neighborhood, frequented places).
3) a societal level (i.e. exosystem), which considers cultural characteristics in a broader sense (national but also trans-national).
The integrated social-ecological theory has evolved as a theoretical model for exploring the factors associated with Violence Against Women. Understanding the causes of violence helps create better prevention programs. There are many theoretical explanations of Violence Against Women, ranging from macro- level theories, which include sociocultural explanations, to micro-level theories, which include intra-individual and social psychological explanations. From previous studies on stereotypes, it has appeared that cognitive variables are among the factors that most influence the acceptance of stereotypes. Therefore, the primary research will investigate the relationship between basic cognitive functions (decision-making and emotion regulation and perpetuation of Gender-Based Discrimination through its implicit stereotypical manifestations.
This research will focus on exploring the cognitive and cultural factors that contribute to Gender-Based Discrimination. By examining elements such as emotion regulation, sexist beliefs, and the acceptance of gender stereotypes within the context of Bronfenbrenner's socio-ecological model, we aim to identify the individual and cultural influences on discriminatory behaviors. Furthermore, a comparative analysis between Italy and Lithuania will provide insights into how these factors manifest differently across cultural contexts. According to the UN Office on Drugs and Crime Global Study on Homicide (2019), Lithuania is among the 5 nations with the highest rate of feminicide as the most fatal abuse against women in Europe, hence the choice of this nation as the primary host for the research. Italy has developed its own victims’ protection mechanism becoming a party to the Istanbul Convention (CoE Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence, 2011) and according to EIGE’s Gender Equality Index, had the largest increase in overall score among all the Member States since 2010. While Italy has ratified the Istanbul Convention and developed robust victim protection mechanisms, Lithuania, despite being a signatory since 2013, has yet to ratify it. This difference presents a unique opportunity to study the specific mechanisms of Gender-Based Discrimination in varying legal and cultural frameworks. The findings from this comparative analysis will inform practical recommendations aimed at mitigating Gender-Based Violence and improving gender equality in both countries.
Therefore, the project aims to integrate into a single theoretical and ambitious model the factors that most seem to be related to adherence to gender stereotypes.
To achieve this aim, the project has four intermediate goals:
1) explore adherence to gender stereotypes in the reference sample.
2) identify the relationship between cognitive variables that lead to stereotypical thinking, to understand which ones are strongest.
3) investigate which models explain the relationships between cognitive variables and stereotypical thinking.
4) make a comparison between Italy and Lithuania to investigate possible cultural differences.
Although there are many studies on Gender-Based Violence and stereotypes, few have tried to unite the different three above mentioned levels. Therefore, the innovative model for stereotypes and Gender-Based Discrimination to be achieved through the research project, which could explain the influence and importance of the three systems in Gender-Based Violence could also be replicated internationally, with the necessary cultural adjustments for context-specific constructs.
Work performed from the beginning of the project to the end of the period covered by the report and main results achieved so far
The scientific activities performed during the reporting period were organised into three phases, corresponding to the progressive development of the project's theoretical, qualitative, and quantitative components. Overall, these activities contributed to the establishment of an interdisciplinary framework for investigating gender-based discrimination through the integration of cognitive psychology, social psychology, gender studies, and criminology.
Phase 1 – Desk Analysis and Theoretical Framework Development (M1–M4): The first phase of the project focused on the refinement of the theoretical framework and the consolidation of the conceptual foundations of the research. Extensive desk research and literature analysis were conducted to develop an integrated explanatory model of gender-based discrimination grounded in contemporary theories of social cognition and predictive processing.
As part of this activity, an umbrella review of psychological evidence on gender discrimination was conducted following PRISMA 2020 guidelines. The review systematically synthesised evidence from systematic reviews and meta-analyses published between 2013 and 2024, examining the cognitive, emotional, social, and structural mechanisms underpinning gender discrimination. The findings highlighted the multifaceted nature of discrimination, identifying structural, interpersonal, and implicit forms of discrimination and documenting their significant impact on psychological wellbeing, physical health, professional trajectories, and social participation. The review also identified important gaps in the existing literature, including the lack of conceptual consensus and the scarcity of longitudinal and intervention-based research.
In parallel, a theoretical essay was developed to investigate the cognitive mechanisms underlying the formation and maintenance of implicit stereotypes. By integrating Clark's predictive brain framework with Hinton's culture in mind approach, this work proposed an interdisciplinary model conceptualising stereotypes as probabilistic cognitive constructions continuously shaped by cultural contexts and social experiences. The theoretical framework developed during this phase provided the conceptual basis for the subsequent empirical activities of the project.
Phase 2 – Qualitative Research Development and Preliminary Analysis (M5–M13): The second phase focused on the development and implementation of the qualitative component of the research. Activities included the design of the research protocol, the development of semi-structured interview guidelines, the preparation of ethical procedures, participant recruitment strategies, and the implementation of comparative qualitative research methods suitable for cross-national analysis.
Semi-structured interviews were conducted with participants from Italy and Lithuania, generating an original comparative dataset aimed at investigating how individuals experience, interpret, and cognitively process gender discrimination. Preliminary analyses were conducted using an integrated qualitative-quantitative approach supported by specialised software tools.
The analyses led to the development of the concept of the "recognition-normalisation paradox", defined as the simultaneous recognition of gender discrimination and its mitigation through interpretative frameworks that render it socially acceptable. The findings suggest that recognition and normalisation coexist systematically within individual narratives and represent a specific form of inferential processing rather than a simple absence of awareness. Comparative analysis demonstrated that, while the paradox exhibits structural similarities across contexts, its manifestation varies culturally: in Italy, normalisation primarily operates through relational and familial expectations, whereas in Lithuania it is predominantly expressed through discursive relativisation and contextual distancing.
These findings contributed to the development of an original theoretical framework integrating predictive processing and social cognition approaches to explain the cognitive mechanisms underlying the social normalisation of gender discrimination. In parallel, work was initiated on a research monograph provisionally entitled "Narrating Gender Inequality: Lived Experiences from Italy and Lithuania", aimed at providing an in-depth qualitative account of gendered experiences across the two national contexts.
Phase 3 – Quantitative Research Design and Experimental Development (M14–M24):The third phase focused on the development of the quantitative and experimental components of the project. Activities included the design and implementation of an original experimental protocol integrating explicit and implicit measures of gender-related attitudes, stereotypes, and discriminatory processes.
Particular attention was devoted to the acquisition and development of technical competencies required for experimental implementation, including programming and online experimental deployment through Python-based environments and the Pavlovia platform. The experimental design combines validated self-report questionnaires measuring explicit attitudes and experiences with computer-based tasks assessing implicit cognitive processes. In addition, contextual measures investigating participants' social, cultural, and demographic environments were incorporated to enable comparative analyses between Italian and Lithuanian participants.
The resulting experimental framework constitutes an innovative mixed-methods approach that allows for the simultaneous investigation of explicit and implicit dimensions of gender discrimination while accounting for the influence of social and cultural contexts. The development of this methodological infrastructure represents a major scientific outcome of the project and provides the basis for future empirical data collection and comparative analyses.
Phase 1 – Desk Analysis and Theoretical Framework Development (M1–M4): The first phase of the project focused on the refinement of the theoretical framework and the consolidation of the conceptual foundations of the research. Extensive desk research and literature analysis were conducted to develop an integrated explanatory model of gender-based discrimination grounded in contemporary theories of social cognition and predictive processing.
As part of this activity, an umbrella review of psychological evidence on gender discrimination was conducted following PRISMA 2020 guidelines. The review systematically synthesised evidence from systematic reviews and meta-analyses published between 2013 and 2024, examining the cognitive, emotional, social, and structural mechanisms underpinning gender discrimination. The findings highlighted the multifaceted nature of discrimination, identifying structural, interpersonal, and implicit forms of discrimination and documenting their significant impact on psychological wellbeing, physical health, professional trajectories, and social participation. The review also identified important gaps in the existing literature, including the lack of conceptual consensus and the scarcity of longitudinal and intervention-based research.
In parallel, a theoretical essay was developed to investigate the cognitive mechanisms underlying the formation and maintenance of implicit stereotypes. By integrating Clark's predictive brain framework with Hinton's culture in mind approach, this work proposed an interdisciplinary model conceptualising stereotypes as probabilistic cognitive constructions continuously shaped by cultural contexts and social experiences. The theoretical framework developed during this phase provided the conceptual basis for the subsequent empirical activities of the project.
Phase 2 – Qualitative Research Development and Preliminary Analysis (M5–M13): The second phase focused on the development and implementation of the qualitative component of the research. Activities included the design of the research protocol, the development of semi-structured interview guidelines, the preparation of ethical procedures, participant recruitment strategies, and the implementation of comparative qualitative research methods suitable for cross-national analysis.
Semi-structured interviews were conducted with participants from Italy and Lithuania, generating an original comparative dataset aimed at investigating how individuals experience, interpret, and cognitively process gender discrimination. Preliminary analyses were conducted using an integrated qualitative-quantitative approach supported by specialised software tools.
The analyses led to the development of the concept of the "recognition-normalisation paradox", defined as the simultaneous recognition of gender discrimination and its mitigation through interpretative frameworks that render it socially acceptable. The findings suggest that recognition and normalisation coexist systematically within individual narratives and represent a specific form of inferential processing rather than a simple absence of awareness. Comparative analysis demonstrated that, while the paradox exhibits structural similarities across contexts, its manifestation varies culturally: in Italy, normalisation primarily operates through relational and familial expectations, whereas in Lithuania it is predominantly expressed through discursive relativisation and contextual distancing.
These findings contributed to the development of an original theoretical framework integrating predictive processing and social cognition approaches to explain the cognitive mechanisms underlying the social normalisation of gender discrimination. In parallel, work was initiated on a research monograph provisionally entitled "Narrating Gender Inequality: Lived Experiences from Italy and Lithuania", aimed at providing an in-depth qualitative account of gendered experiences across the two national contexts.
Phase 3 – Quantitative Research Design and Experimental Development (M14–M24):The third phase focused on the development of the quantitative and experimental components of the project. Activities included the design and implementation of an original experimental protocol integrating explicit and implicit measures of gender-related attitudes, stereotypes, and discriminatory processes.
Particular attention was devoted to the acquisition and development of technical competencies required for experimental implementation, including programming and online experimental deployment through Python-based environments and the Pavlovia platform. The experimental design combines validated self-report questionnaires measuring explicit attitudes and experiences with computer-based tasks assessing implicit cognitive processes. In addition, contextual measures investigating participants' social, cultural, and demographic environments were incorporated to enable comparative analyses between Italian and Lithuanian participants.
The resulting experimental framework constitutes an innovative mixed-methods approach that allows for the simultaneous investigation of explicit and implicit dimensions of gender discrimination while accounting for the influence of social and cultural contexts. The development of this methodological infrastructure represents a major scientific outcome of the project and provides the basis for future empirical data collection and comparative analyses.
Progress beyond the state of the art and expected potential impact (including the socio-economic impact and the wider societal implications of the project so far)
The project has generated significant scientific and methodological results contributing to the advancement of knowledge on gender-based discrimination through an interdisciplinary approach integrating cognitive psychology, social psychology, gender studies, and criminology.
The primary scientific outcome of the project has been the development of an original theoretical framework conceptualising gender discrimination as a dynamic social and cognitive process shaped by predictive mechanisms, implicit stereotypes, and culturally mediated interpretative practices. By integrating predictive processing approaches with theories of social cognition and cultural psychology, the project has contributed to a novel understanding of how discriminatory attitudes and behaviours are formed, maintained, and normalised across different social contexts.
The desk analysis phase resulted in the systematic synthesis of existing psychological evidence on gender discrimination through an umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses, identifying major conceptual gaps in the literature, particularly regarding the integration of structural, interpersonal, and implicit forms of discrimination. In parallel, the development of an interdisciplinary theoretical model of implicit stereotypes provided a conceptual framework for investigating the interaction between cognitive mechanisms and cultural contexts in the production and reproduction of social inequalities.
The qualitative phase of the project generated an original cross-national dataset comprising in-depth interviews conducted in Italy and Lithuania. The analysis of these data led to the identification of the "recognition-normalisation paradox", a novel theoretical construct describing the coexistence of the recognition of gender discrimination and its simultaneous normalisation through culturally embedded interpretative processes. The findings demonstrated that the normalisation of discrimination constitutes an active inferential process rather than a simple lack of awareness, offering new theoretical perspectives for understanding resistance to social change and the persistence of gender inequalities.
The quantitative phase resulted in the development of an innovative mixed-methods experimental framework combining validated explicit measures, computer-based implicit measures, and contextual indicators of social and cultural environments. This methodological infrastructure enables the simultaneous investigation of explicit attitudes, implicit cognitive processes, and contextual influences on gender discrimination, facilitating comparative analyses across national settings.
The scientific results generated by the project have the potential to contribute significantly to several research and societal domains. First, they provide a theoretical foundation for future interdisciplinary research investigating the cognitive and social mechanisms underlying discrimination and prejudice. Second, they offer methodological tools that may be adapted and applied in comparative and cross-cultural studies. Third, they contribute to the evidence base supporting the development of interventions, educational programmes, and policy initiatives aimed at reducing gender inequalities and discriminatory practices. The successful uptake and further development of the project's results will require continued empirical research, particularly through larger-scale quantitative studies and longitudinal designs capable of investigating the temporal dynamics of discriminatory processes. Additional cross-cultural validation studies will also be necessary to assess the generalisability of the proposed theoretical framework across different social and institutional contexts. Future research activities should focus on expanding the empirical evidence base, refining the proposed theoretical model, and developing evidence-based interventions targeting the cognitive and social mechanisms identified by the project. The methodological framework developed within the project also provides opportunities for international collaboration and interdisciplinary research initiatives involving psychology, gender studies, social sciences, and public policy.
Overall, the project has established a robust theoretical, methodological, and empirical foundation for future scientific developments in the study of gender-based discrimination and its cognitive, social, and cultural determinants.
The primary scientific outcome of the project has been the development of an original theoretical framework conceptualising gender discrimination as a dynamic social and cognitive process shaped by predictive mechanisms, implicit stereotypes, and culturally mediated interpretative practices. By integrating predictive processing approaches with theories of social cognition and cultural psychology, the project has contributed to a novel understanding of how discriminatory attitudes and behaviours are formed, maintained, and normalised across different social contexts.
The desk analysis phase resulted in the systematic synthesis of existing psychological evidence on gender discrimination through an umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses, identifying major conceptual gaps in the literature, particularly regarding the integration of structural, interpersonal, and implicit forms of discrimination. In parallel, the development of an interdisciplinary theoretical model of implicit stereotypes provided a conceptual framework for investigating the interaction between cognitive mechanisms and cultural contexts in the production and reproduction of social inequalities.
The qualitative phase of the project generated an original cross-national dataset comprising in-depth interviews conducted in Italy and Lithuania. The analysis of these data led to the identification of the "recognition-normalisation paradox", a novel theoretical construct describing the coexistence of the recognition of gender discrimination and its simultaneous normalisation through culturally embedded interpretative processes. The findings demonstrated that the normalisation of discrimination constitutes an active inferential process rather than a simple lack of awareness, offering new theoretical perspectives for understanding resistance to social change and the persistence of gender inequalities.
The quantitative phase resulted in the development of an innovative mixed-methods experimental framework combining validated explicit measures, computer-based implicit measures, and contextual indicators of social and cultural environments. This methodological infrastructure enables the simultaneous investigation of explicit attitudes, implicit cognitive processes, and contextual influences on gender discrimination, facilitating comparative analyses across national settings.
The scientific results generated by the project have the potential to contribute significantly to several research and societal domains. First, they provide a theoretical foundation for future interdisciplinary research investigating the cognitive and social mechanisms underlying discrimination and prejudice. Second, they offer methodological tools that may be adapted and applied in comparative and cross-cultural studies. Third, they contribute to the evidence base supporting the development of interventions, educational programmes, and policy initiatives aimed at reducing gender inequalities and discriminatory practices. The successful uptake and further development of the project's results will require continued empirical research, particularly through larger-scale quantitative studies and longitudinal designs capable of investigating the temporal dynamics of discriminatory processes. Additional cross-cultural validation studies will also be necessary to assess the generalisability of the proposed theoretical framework across different social and institutional contexts. Future research activities should focus on expanding the empirical evidence base, refining the proposed theoretical model, and developing evidence-based interventions targeting the cognitive and social mechanisms identified by the project. The methodological framework developed within the project also provides opportunities for international collaboration and interdisciplinary research initiatives involving psychology, gender studies, social sciences, and public policy.
Overall, the project has established a robust theoretical, methodological, and empirical foundation for future scientific developments in the study of gender-based discrimination and its cognitive, social, and cultural determinants.