Periodic Reporting for period 3 - AfricanWomen (Women in Africa)
Período documentado: 2021-08-01 hasta 2023-01-31
The overarching goal of the project is to improve our understanding of processes of discrimination in households, families and societies that contribute to continued low levels of wellbeing of African women. We consider gender discrimination from two perspectives. First we take a historical angle and investigate long term trends in women wellbeing and their drivers, and then we focus on mechanisms of intra-household resource allocations in present-day Africa, using both economic theory and empirics. These two perspectives are complementary. The long-term analysis helps identify the large forces that have shaped the emancipation or subjugation of African women through history. To better understand how these forces have modified women’s positions and to inform policy making today, we go down to the level of the household and consider the processes that govern intra-household allocations.
The historical analysis focuses largely on colonial Congo. On the basis demographic data, ethnographic information and data on colonial presence, we investigate the impacts of colonial policies on several dimensions of women’s lives. Combining this data with more recent surveys, we are able to trace the long-term consequences of specific policies. In the second part we investigate constraints to women entrepreneurship in the context of Benin, where we set up a partnership with the Belgium Development Agency (Enabel), using their program of supporting pineapple growers. While male producers prevail in the pineapple production, women are increasingly entering into this lucrative activity, despite facing many gender-specific barriers. We set up a randomize control trial to evaluate the changes Enabel’s technical and financial support triggers in producers’ household, so we can better characterize the binding constraints to women’s involvement in this production, husbands’ critical role, and the importance of gender norms for economic success. We also explore the processes of intra-household decision-making from a theoretical perspective, and particularly we propose an alternative view on this process, where delegation of roles within the couple may lead to a separation of spheres of decisions that is, in fact more efficient than a bargaining outcome.
The historical analysis focuses largely on colonial Congo. On the basis demographic data, ethnographic information and data on colonial presence, we investigate the impacts of colonial policies on several dimensions of women’s lives. Combining this data with more recent surveys, we are able to trace the long-term consequences of specific policies. In the second part we investigate constraints to women entrepreneurship in the context of Benin, where we set up a partnership with the Belgium Development Agency (Enabel), using their program of supporting pineapple growers. While male producers prevail in the pineapple production, women are increasingly entering into this lucrative activity, despite facing many gender-specific barriers. We set up a randomize control trial to evaluate the changes Enabel’s technical and financial support triggers in producers’ household, so we can better characterize the binding constraints to women’s involvement in this production, husbands’ critical role, and the importance of gender norms for economic success. We also explore the processes of intra-household decision-making from a theoretical perspective, and particularly we propose an alternative view on this process, where delegation of roles within the couple may lead to a separation of spheres of decisions that is, in fact more efficient than a bargaining outcome.
African women through history:
We constructed a unique data base allowing to investigate changes in African women’s life over the colonial period. The work so far has focused on colonial Congo since this country is understudied compared to countries formerly under British or French rule, using a wealth of good quality data, and the advantageous access to data and experts offered by the Belgian location of the project. We retrieved five main types of information from a large variety of sources (published material available in library in Belgium and abroad, rare maps available in museums, individual records from demographic survey kept in archival offices):
- Micro-level data on urban dwellers in the 1970s for a representative sample of the population.
- Cohort-territoire level data for Congo in the 1950s representative of the whole population
- Mission-level information for Congo 1880-1960
- Ethnic groups information
- Judgement from customary courts 1920-1960 in the Equateur province
Using this data we have analysed the fertility pattern of urban women in the 1970s and investigated how pro-birth policies put in place by the Belgian state were successful in stimulating fertility. Catholic missions and nuns in particular, were heavily mobilized to change traditional practices of child care, breastfeeding and birth spacings. Our results suggest that Catholic nuns succeeded in raising birth rates among population living near their posts. In contrast, Protestant missions have a negative impact on fertility outcomes. These colonial influences have long term consequences for demographic and development dynamics.
With the same data (and combining it with contemporaneous data from Demographic and Health Surveys and Out-of-school Children Surveys), we investigate the long-term trends in schooling outcomes by gender. We analyse how colonial investments in education shape today geographic and gender inequalities in educational outcomes. We explore mechanisms of persistence, paying special attention to persistence in access to schooling (location of schools) and in the demand for education. Regarding the latter channel, we exploit the sample of migrants in the 1970s to quantify to what extent parents exposure to colonial education affects their demand for child education (holding constant access to schools).
Using the outcomes of judgements in family affairs in customary courts, we plan to investigate interplay between the demand for male versus female labour for colonial productions and court outcomes. The analysis of a small sample of cases (digitized as a pilot) suggests that women’s likelihood to win a case is much lower than men’s and that this bias worsen over the period of analysis. Historians argue that these courts were deeply influenced by local administrators who used them as a way to control the local population, including in family affairs. We will explore whether when colonial powers mobilized (either directly or indirectly) female labour force, their control of women through customary courts strengthened (thereby influencing women’s position in their households and families).
In addition to investigating these original data bases, we have put together available information about women and men heights in the African continent using DHS and STEPS survey. We are exploring how informal institutions and in particular the bride-price custom, shape parental investment in their children nutrition and thereby women’s relative height.
Intra-household bargaining and women outcomes:
- Delegation in the household: We develop a theoretical model that propose an alternative view on intra-household decision making. We have developed experimental games to test the prediction of the models (not yet implemented).
- Constraints to women entrepreneurship: Using our exploratory field work in Benin we identified several market and household constraints that appear to weigh disproportionally on women pineapple producers Gender norms may also play a deterring role and a critical element for the success of women pineapple growers seems to be the support they receive from male family members. We designed and tested an original questionnaire to quantify the importance of these constraints and to be in a position to rigorously evaluate the impacts of an intervention providing new opportunities to female pineapple producers (in the context of randomized-control-trial). We surveyed 1009 women and 876 men belonging to households involved in pineapple production. The Covid-19 crisis largely delayed the delivery of the intervention. Yet, starting in December 2021, 650 women were invited to follow a training module on female entrepreneurship and pineapple production (designed in collaboration with the Belgian cooperation Agency, Enabel and delivered by Enabel). Half of women followed the training with their husband and half alone. All 650 women were then offered the possibility to extend their area in pineapple by 0.5 ha with a subsidy from Enabel (an in kind transfer for field clearing and planting). During the training a short follow-up survey was conducted to measure in particular women’s levels of empowerment. A follow-up is planned in May 2023 and an end-line in early 2024.
- Domestic violence: we are developing an original theory of domestic violence. An important novelty is that it considers the effect of violence on women’s self-esteem. As the latter decreases women’s propensity to escape a violent union, violence may be strategically used by husbands to avoid divorce. We explore how key model parameters such as women and men outside options changes the prevalence of violence and women welfare. An important insight is that increases in either outside options have non-monotonous impacts on women welfare. For example, when men have relatively low outside options, an increase in women’s outside option tends to initially increase violence (and decrease women welfare).
We constructed a unique data base allowing to investigate changes in African women’s life over the colonial period. The work so far has focused on colonial Congo since this country is understudied compared to countries formerly under British or French rule, using a wealth of good quality data, and the advantageous access to data and experts offered by the Belgian location of the project. We retrieved five main types of information from a large variety of sources (published material available in library in Belgium and abroad, rare maps available in museums, individual records from demographic survey kept in archival offices):
- Micro-level data on urban dwellers in the 1970s for a representative sample of the population.
- Cohort-territoire level data for Congo in the 1950s representative of the whole population
- Mission-level information for Congo 1880-1960
- Ethnic groups information
- Judgement from customary courts 1920-1960 in the Equateur province
Using this data we have analysed the fertility pattern of urban women in the 1970s and investigated how pro-birth policies put in place by the Belgian state were successful in stimulating fertility. Catholic missions and nuns in particular, were heavily mobilized to change traditional practices of child care, breastfeeding and birth spacings. Our results suggest that Catholic nuns succeeded in raising birth rates among population living near their posts. In contrast, Protestant missions have a negative impact on fertility outcomes. These colonial influences have long term consequences for demographic and development dynamics.
With the same data (and combining it with contemporaneous data from Demographic and Health Surveys and Out-of-school Children Surveys), we investigate the long-term trends in schooling outcomes by gender. We analyse how colonial investments in education shape today geographic and gender inequalities in educational outcomes. We explore mechanisms of persistence, paying special attention to persistence in access to schooling (location of schools) and in the demand for education. Regarding the latter channel, we exploit the sample of migrants in the 1970s to quantify to what extent parents exposure to colonial education affects their demand for child education (holding constant access to schools).
Using the outcomes of judgements in family affairs in customary courts, we plan to investigate interplay between the demand for male versus female labour for colonial productions and court outcomes. The analysis of a small sample of cases (digitized as a pilot) suggests that women’s likelihood to win a case is much lower than men’s and that this bias worsen over the period of analysis. Historians argue that these courts were deeply influenced by local administrators who used them as a way to control the local population, including in family affairs. We will explore whether when colonial powers mobilized (either directly or indirectly) female labour force, their control of women through customary courts strengthened (thereby influencing women’s position in their households and families).
In addition to investigating these original data bases, we have put together available information about women and men heights in the African continent using DHS and STEPS survey. We are exploring how informal institutions and in particular the bride-price custom, shape parental investment in their children nutrition and thereby women’s relative height.
Intra-household bargaining and women outcomes:
- Delegation in the household: We develop a theoretical model that propose an alternative view on intra-household decision making. We have developed experimental games to test the prediction of the models (not yet implemented).
- Constraints to women entrepreneurship: Using our exploratory field work in Benin we identified several market and household constraints that appear to weigh disproportionally on women pineapple producers Gender norms may also play a deterring role and a critical element for the success of women pineapple growers seems to be the support they receive from male family members. We designed and tested an original questionnaire to quantify the importance of these constraints and to be in a position to rigorously evaluate the impacts of an intervention providing new opportunities to female pineapple producers (in the context of randomized-control-trial). We surveyed 1009 women and 876 men belonging to households involved in pineapple production. The Covid-19 crisis largely delayed the delivery of the intervention. Yet, starting in December 2021, 650 women were invited to follow a training module on female entrepreneurship and pineapple production (designed in collaboration with the Belgian cooperation Agency, Enabel and delivered by Enabel). Half of women followed the training with their husband and half alone. All 650 women were then offered the possibility to extend their area in pineapple by 0.5 ha with a subsidy from Enabel (an in kind transfer for field clearing and planting). During the training a short follow-up survey was conducted to measure in particular women’s levels of empowerment. A follow-up is planned in May 2023 and an end-line in early 2024.
- Domestic violence: we are developing an original theory of domestic violence. An important novelty is that it considers the effect of violence on women’s self-esteem. As the latter decreases women’s propensity to escape a violent union, violence may be strategically used by husbands to avoid divorce. We explore how key model parameters such as women and men outside options changes the prevalence of violence and women welfare. An important insight is that increases in either outside options have non-monotonous impacts on women welfare. For example, when men have relatively low outside options, an increase in women’s outside option tends to initially increase violence (and decrease women welfare).
African women through history:
The recovery of the individual records, representative of large population, is fantastic and allows to evaluate quantitatively the effect of various colonial policies on men and women directly affected by these policies. While there is an overall consensus among historians that women’s relative position decreased during the colonial period in sub-Saharan Africa, there is also some evidence that (some) women seized new opportunities and improved their lot compared to their male counterpart. There are however extremely few quantitative investigations into these questions. This project helps fill this gap. In particular we investigate whether and how colonial institutions modified the core social organization of the local populations: the family. We expect to contribute to the understanding of the role of pro-birth colonial policies in changing reproductive behaviour; whether colonial women’s education contributed to economic success; whether and how the colonial judicial treatment of family conflicts changed women’s relative position.
Intra-household bargaining and women outcomes:
With a new model of household decision, we study one of the most unique aspects of intra-household dynamics in many African households: the strict separation of budgets and responsibilities. Instead of viewing this separation and specialization as the result of a failure to cooperate (as in a classic “separate sphere” model), we model it as a delegation equilibrium, borrowing from the industrial organization literature. This will generate new insights on the functioning of households that we will test using experimental games.
In our study of the constraints to the economic success of female entrepreneurs, we focus ion two original aspects. The first is the difficulties women encounter in negotiating contracts and in monitoring the labour force they hire. There is a lot of attention to discrimination processes in the labour market where men, in powerful positions may act differently towards female employees. Here the point of view is reversed and the question is: to what extend do male employees react differently to instructions given by female managers. Another original aspect relates to roles of husbands in constraining their wives’ economic success. Using first-hand data, we will investigate why some men are reluctant to facilitate the development of their wife’s business, whether they fear changes in bargaining power or the transgression of gender norms.Furthermore since one treatment arm (within the framework of the RCT) involves husbands by inviting them to the training of their wife, we will learn whether such inclusion in the delivery of a program is a promising way to leverage husband support.
The model of domestic violence we are developing is incorporating insights from medical and psychological studies regarding how violence changes one’s ability to look to a future outside of the current violent relationship. It provides a comprehensive framework to understand why women’s increase in outside option may paradoxically increase their exposure to violence within their couple but also to explore differences across societies and analyse promising policies.
The recovery of the individual records, representative of large population, is fantastic and allows to evaluate quantitatively the effect of various colonial policies on men and women directly affected by these policies. While there is an overall consensus among historians that women’s relative position decreased during the colonial period in sub-Saharan Africa, there is also some evidence that (some) women seized new opportunities and improved their lot compared to their male counterpart. There are however extremely few quantitative investigations into these questions. This project helps fill this gap. In particular we investigate whether and how colonial institutions modified the core social organization of the local populations: the family. We expect to contribute to the understanding of the role of pro-birth colonial policies in changing reproductive behaviour; whether colonial women’s education contributed to economic success; whether and how the colonial judicial treatment of family conflicts changed women’s relative position.
Intra-household bargaining and women outcomes:
With a new model of household decision, we study one of the most unique aspects of intra-household dynamics in many African households: the strict separation of budgets and responsibilities. Instead of viewing this separation and specialization as the result of a failure to cooperate (as in a classic “separate sphere” model), we model it as a delegation equilibrium, borrowing from the industrial organization literature. This will generate new insights on the functioning of households that we will test using experimental games.
In our study of the constraints to the economic success of female entrepreneurs, we focus ion two original aspects. The first is the difficulties women encounter in negotiating contracts and in monitoring the labour force they hire. There is a lot of attention to discrimination processes in the labour market where men, in powerful positions may act differently towards female employees. Here the point of view is reversed and the question is: to what extend do male employees react differently to instructions given by female managers. Another original aspect relates to roles of husbands in constraining their wives’ economic success. Using first-hand data, we will investigate why some men are reluctant to facilitate the development of their wife’s business, whether they fear changes in bargaining power or the transgression of gender norms.Furthermore since one treatment arm (within the framework of the RCT) involves husbands by inviting them to the training of their wife, we will learn whether such inclusion in the delivery of a program is a promising way to leverage husband support.
The model of domestic violence we are developing is incorporating insights from medical and psychological studies regarding how violence changes one’s ability to look to a future outside of the current violent relationship. It provides a comprehensive framework to understand why women’s increase in outside option may paradoxically increase their exposure to violence within their couple but also to explore differences across societies and analyse promising policies.