The consortium comprised 23 partners. Lean yet effective management allowed S4CE to transform risks into opportunities. Main outcomes:
A. Field sites
The field sites provided samples for technological development and grounds for testing new technologies; S4CE contributed to further developing the field sites.
B. New technologies
(1) ORION® open path analyser, whose TRL has been increased to 8;
(2) LIBRA isotope radiometer, whose TRL has increased to 7;
(3) DNA-based tracers, tested for toxicity and stability at various temperature-pressure conditions;
(4) A prototype to detect crack initiation in metallic casings using acoustic emission;
(5) three-dimensional imaging methods to monitor fluid flow in concrete structures;
(6) the fluid sampling PUSH50, optimised to preserve pressure integrity and minimize sampling impact on microbial life;
(7) laboratory instrumentation to quantify reservoir capacity at up to 200C and 1000 bar; (8) Painted sensing skins to image cracks and strain fields.
C. Distinct rock-fluid environments were studied: granite (geothermal operations), shale (unconventional gas and CO2 sequestration) and basalt (CCS/geothermal). Key findings:
(1) Direct observation of fluid chemistry role in controlling the permeability evolution of granite;
(2) Effective mineralisation of CO2 and H2S in basalt;
(3) Quantification of CO2 retention capacity of shale caprocks at subsurface conditions;
(4) Assessment of microbial diversity in environmental basaltic samples and sustained metabolic activity at high pressures.
D. Modelling
(1) The precise structural geology mapping was used to develop site-specific numerical models and assess the vulnerability of shallow aquifers to subsurface activities.
(2) A robust, accurate, long-time-scales deterministic molecular dynamics (MD) method to understand carbon sequestration processes. The atomistic modelling of the interaction of CO2 with cements contributes to our ability to detect failure of concrete casings.
(3) Complementary approaches were implemented to study induced seismicity: (i) Seismo-hydraulic pressure mapping (SHPM) can provide the basis for improving reservoir performance forecasts (hydraulic, thermal and seismic hazard) and for optimizing reservoir development strategies; (ii) Finite Element Modelling (FEM) modelling simulates propagation, initiation and reactivation of fractures, which will enable the safe deployment of geo-energy operation; (iii) combining ground motion prediction equations (GMPEs), FMT and 4D tomography will help to implement innovative technologies to monitor, manage and mitigate the risks associated with induced seismicity.
Ethical oversight provided suggestions on how to achieve and maintain the social license to operate. Best practice recommendations have been proposed after sharing knowledge with North American institutions, achieving preventative and mitigative strategies.
A comprehensive communication and dissemination plan was implemented, including relations with local and international newspapers, radio & TV stations, >60+ peer-reviewed publications, and various social media channels. The S4CE website was continually updated, allowing the public to participate in dissemination activities. Three datasets (CarbFix, St Gallen, Cooper Basin) were made available via the IS-EPOS platform. Several specialized workshops and webinars were organised; Early Career Researchers were trained at Summer Schools, as well as via workshops dedicated to career progression. S4CE discoveries and accomplishments have enriched the ‘Global Management of Natural Resources’ masters’ programme.
