Periodic Reporting for period 1 - ITEM (Imitations and inTeractions in the Eastern Mediterranean: A Study of Bronze Age Cypriot Pottery)
Reporting period: 2020-12-01 to 2022-11-30
Through the case study of specific archaeological artefacts – ceramics made in Cyprus and their imitations during the Second Millennium BCE - ITEM (Imitations and inTeractions in the Eastern Mediterranean) aimed to investigate the mechanisms involved in the transition from trading connections to cultural exchanges. During the Middle and Late Bronze Ages (c. 1800-1200 BCE), the exponential development of bronze technology led to an intensive search for new copper sources. Therefore, the island of Cyprus, where copper ores were exploited, was progressively integrated within a broader Eastern Mediterranean exchange network. Cypriot goods, especially ceramics, were traded widely throughout the neighbouring regions, leading to the development of imitations as well as innovative productions inspired by their shapes and decorative motifs. Questioning the concept of imitation and its traditionally held theories, the goal of ITEM was to investigate where, when and why these imitations developed and how foreign techniques and decorative motifs were integrated into the local traditions of geographically diverse regions. Using imitations of Cypriot ceramics as a case study, ITEM ultimately aimed to investigate the complex mechanisms at work in the transition from trading connections to cultural exchanges. The main topics of ITEM – mobility, intercultural encounters, and transmission – are still highly relevant to our modern societies.
Thus, the project ITEM was driven by five key research axes, each of them addressing specific objectives. The first objective (Axis 1) was to reassess the notions of imitation, inspiration and influence through the varied scopes of archaeological, anthropological and sociological theories. Another goal was to examine the evolution of trading connections between Cyprus and the Eastern Mediterranean (Axis 2) in order to assess how the development of imitations was linked to the evolution of trading patterns during the Second Millennium BCE. Building from the two previous research axes, the third objective was to scrutinise how Cypriot shapes, motifs and techniques were imitated, in order to find out which processes are at work in the transfer of know-how and how regional variations can be identified (Axis 3). Thanks to the reassessment of imitations’ discovery contexts, ITEM also aimed to clarify whether only elements of shapes and decorative motifs were adopted, or also the social functions and the meanings of the original artefacts (Axis 4). Eventually, the circulation of goods and technics cannot be separated from the circulation of people. To address this topic, the last research axis of the project (Axis 5) investigated the Cypriot presence outside Cyprus, in order to determine if Cypriot traders and craftsmen could have been integrated among the populations of certain coastal cities of the Eastern Mediterranean during the Middle and Late Bronze Ages (c. 1800-1200 BCE).
Thus, the project ITEM was driven by five key research axes, each of them addressing specific objectives. The first objective (Axis 1) was to reassess the notions of imitation, inspiration and influence through the varied scopes of archaeological, anthropological and sociological theories. Another goal was to examine the evolution of trading connections between Cyprus and the Eastern Mediterranean (Axis 2) in order to assess how the development of imitations was linked to the evolution of trading patterns during the Second Millennium BCE. Building from the two previous research axes, the third objective was to scrutinise how Cypriot shapes, motifs and techniques were imitated, in order to find out which processes are at work in the transfer of know-how and how regional variations can be identified (Axis 3). Thanks to the reassessment of imitations’ discovery contexts, ITEM also aimed to clarify whether only elements of shapes and decorative motifs were adopted, or also the social functions and the meanings of the original artefacts (Axis 4). Eventually, the circulation of goods and technics cannot be separated from the circulation of people. To address this topic, the last research axis of the project (Axis 5) investigated the Cypriot presence outside Cyprus, in order to determine if Cypriot traders and craftsmen could have been integrated among the populations of certain coastal cities of the Eastern Mediterranean during the Middle and Late Bronze Ages (c. 1800-1200 BCE).
The work carried out from December 1st, 2020 to November 30, 2022 was divided in three different phases: 1) the collection of published data, 2) the first-hand study of archaeological material kept in museum collections in France, the United Kingdom and the United States; 3) the processing and consolidation of collected data leading to the project’s conclusions. As a result, a corpus of 530 artefacts have been gathered (Fig. 1). However, all of them cannot be considered “imitations”. The project’s results highlighted that several shapes and motifs were circulating so broadly in the Eastern Mediterranean that potters and craftsmen might not have always been aware of the origin of the morphological or stylistic features they were using, leading to the production of consciously or unconsciously “influenced” artefacts, a phenomenon mainly restricted to the second part of the Late Bronze Age (c. 1400-1200 BCE).
The reassessment of discovery contexts (Axis 2) has revealed that imitations are often discovered alongside their imported models, suggesting that they were not meant to compensate for a lack of Cypriot imports. Their functions also seem to have been similar to the ones of genuine Cypriot ceramics. The fondness for these artefacts prompted not only the production of faithful imitations but also the creation of “entangled objects” inspired by Cypriot prototypes, which combine both foreign and local features. The firsthand study of 131 imitations kept in Museum collections led to further important results thanks to the examination of macro-traces documented using RTI photography. The images obtained were used to highlight characteristic details of the different pottery traditions, such as shaving marks (Fig. 2). It was shown that, although Cypriot shapes and decorative motifs were imitated, the techniques were - in most cases – local.
In addition, in Egypt, Cypriot shapes were occasionally transposed in raw materials different from the ones of the original imports. These transpositions were made in travertine, serpentine or breccia, the type of stone being related to the social status of the owner of the artefact (Fig. 3). Several of them borrowed elements from traditional Egyptian stone forms, creating a hybrid product with a distinct identity. Cypriot juglets were also transposed in coloured glass (c. 1530 BCE) in order to imitate semi-precious stones such as lapis lazuli and turquoise (Fig. 4). The choice of a specific Cypriot shape to create luxury cosmetic juglets, using the newly mastered glass technology, shows how valued must have been the original Cypriot models (Axes 3-4). Cypriot imports represented a highly specialised trade, but they had a long-lasting influence on the Eastern Mediterranean craftsmanship. Therefore, imitations of Cypriot artefacts inform us not only about the ties that bind Cyprus, but also about the specific tastes and needs of the societies that produced them.The project’s results were disseminated at five international conferences and one seminar and through the preparation of three scientific publications. The project was closed by an international workshop gathering speakers from seven different countries (France, Greece, Austria, Turkey, Lebanon, the United Kingdom, the United States), the proceedings of which have been accepted for publication by the host institution’s publishing house.
The reassessment of discovery contexts (Axis 2) has revealed that imitations are often discovered alongside their imported models, suggesting that they were not meant to compensate for a lack of Cypriot imports. Their functions also seem to have been similar to the ones of genuine Cypriot ceramics. The fondness for these artefacts prompted not only the production of faithful imitations but also the creation of “entangled objects” inspired by Cypriot prototypes, which combine both foreign and local features. The firsthand study of 131 imitations kept in Museum collections led to further important results thanks to the examination of macro-traces documented using RTI photography. The images obtained were used to highlight characteristic details of the different pottery traditions, such as shaving marks (Fig. 2). It was shown that, although Cypriot shapes and decorative motifs were imitated, the techniques were - in most cases – local.
In addition, in Egypt, Cypriot shapes were occasionally transposed in raw materials different from the ones of the original imports. These transpositions were made in travertine, serpentine or breccia, the type of stone being related to the social status of the owner of the artefact (Fig. 3). Several of them borrowed elements from traditional Egyptian stone forms, creating a hybrid product with a distinct identity. Cypriot juglets were also transposed in coloured glass (c. 1530 BCE) in order to imitate semi-precious stones such as lapis lazuli and turquoise (Fig. 4). The choice of a specific Cypriot shape to create luxury cosmetic juglets, using the newly mastered glass technology, shows how valued must have been the original Cypriot models (Axes 3-4). Cypriot imports represented a highly specialised trade, but they had a long-lasting influence on the Eastern Mediterranean craftsmanship. Therefore, imitations of Cypriot artefacts inform us not only about the ties that bind Cyprus, but also about the specific tastes and needs of the societies that produced them.The project’s results were disseminated at five international conferences and one seminar and through the preparation of three scientific publications. The project was closed by an international workshop gathering speakers from seven different countries (France, Greece, Austria, Turkey, Lebanon, the United Kingdom, the United States), the proceedings of which have been accepted for publication by the host institution’s publishing house.
The project ITEM progressed beyond the state of the art by offering an interdisciplinary, diachronic, and multi-regional scope of cultural interactions during the second millennium BCE. A comparative and material culture-based analysis searching for evolutionary trade and cultural exchanges in the Eastern Mediterranean has not been undertaken on this scale before. Furthermore, the scope of ITEM is not limited to pottery artefacts, but also included reproductions in stone and glass. By applying techniques from the Digital Humanities such as RTI photography, ITEM offered an innovative alternative to standard approaches to material culture studies in order to provide new insights on a complex period of human History. Thus, the work carried out during the project ITEM has a particular resonance in our globalised society, where the exchange of cultural values between different countries is ubiquitous. Whether in the Bronze Age (c. 1800-1200 BCE) or nowadays, imitations bear witness to the tastes and fashions of the time.