Periodic Reporting for period 1 - TEARAID (From TEARs to AID: the effects of emotional tears in images of refugees on helping through crowdfunding actions)
Reporting period: 2021-01-01 to 2022-12-31
Forced migrants often appear in mass and social media with tearful faces, but little is known about the impact these images have on the receiving society's willingness to help. Emotional expressions, such as crying, may play a significant role. Research suggests that people are more likely to support individuals who shed tears, but the effects of emotional tears on helping behavior have yet to be examined, especially in an intergroup context.
The TEARAID project aimed to shed light on the relationship between tearful portrayals of refugees and the promotion of two types of prosocial intentions and/or behavior: autonomy-oriented help, which aims to promote refugees’ agency, and dependency-oriented help, which aims to alleviate suffering by providing necessities such as food and shelter. Furthermore, the project measured real helping behavior by inviting participants to support actual social initiatives that help refugees. Observer’s emotional reactions and inferences were considered as important underlying mechanisms in the help-eliciting function of tears.
The project addressed three main challenges. First, it aimed to examine the effects of emotional tears on the promotion of prosocial behavior and hence to provide an innovative tool for measuring such behaviors, creating joint initiatives with civil society organizations and fundraising campaigns. Second, it aimed to determine why the effects of tearful images occur, testing the role of underlying mechanisms such as the perceived needs or humanness of the tearful person and the emotions felt in response to tears. Third, it aimed to identify the factors that strengthen or weaken these effects, including the characteristics of a person who is shedding tears, as well as those of the observer.
We addressed these challenges in the intergroup context, using both standardized and real-life photos and videos of refugees from social campaigns by NGOs to compare people's reactions to tearful and non-tearful images across seven experimental studies. TEARAID provided valuable insights into the effects that images of tearful refugees in mass media and social campaigns have on solidarity with refugees, helped to improve applied measures of prosocial behavior, and offered an opportunity to create initiatives bridging social science, art, fundraising campaigns, and civil society organizations.
The TEARAID project aimed to shed light on the relationship between tearful portrayals of refugees and the promotion of two types of prosocial intentions and/or behavior: autonomy-oriented help, which aims to promote refugees’ agency, and dependency-oriented help, which aims to alleviate suffering by providing necessities such as food and shelter. Furthermore, the project measured real helping behavior by inviting participants to support actual social initiatives that help refugees. Observer’s emotional reactions and inferences were considered as important underlying mechanisms in the help-eliciting function of tears.
The project addressed three main challenges. First, it aimed to examine the effects of emotional tears on the promotion of prosocial behavior and hence to provide an innovative tool for measuring such behaviors, creating joint initiatives with civil society organizations and fundraising campaigns. Second, it aimed to determine why the effects of tearful images occur, testing the role of underlying mechanisms such as the perceived needs or humanness of the tearful person and the emotions felt in response to tears. Third, it aimed to identify the factors that strengthen or weaken these effects, including the characteristics of a person who is shedding tears, as well as those of the observer.
We addressed these challenges in the intergroup context, using both standardized and real-life photos and videos of refugees from social campaigns by NGOs to compare people's reactions to tearful and non-tearful images across seven experimental studies. TEARAID provided valuable insights into the effects that images of tearful refugees in mass media and social campaigns have on solidarity with refugees, helped to improve applied measures of prosocial behavior, and offered an opportunity to create initiatives bridging social science, art, fundraising campaigns, and civil society organizations.
In first stage of the TEARAID project, we analyzed data collected in three experiments, involving 548 Spanish adults. This research revealed that individuals reported stronger intentions to approach a tearful immigrant or refugee and donate money to an NGO for their assistance. These effects were explained by the perceived warmth of the immigrant and the observer’s feelings of compassion (Bobowik et al., 2022, Emotion).
In the second stage, we conducted four additional experiments, including online and field studies, in collaboration with the non-governmental organization Refugee Today (https://www.refugee.today(opens in new window)). These experiments were designed to test the effects of tearful portrayals of refugees on intergroup helping intentions and behavior through felt emotions. For Studies 1 and 2, we exposed native-born Dutch participants (N = 1698) to various experimental conditions involving a video of a refugee either not showing or showing tears. Participants then completed a questionnaire and were asked to engage in real fundraising action.
In Study 3 (N = 209), we tested the effects of emotional tears on helping in a real social setting of a photography exhibition during a science festival. For this study, we validated 26 non-tearful and 26 equivalent tearful portraits of the same refugees taken by Refugee Today. Ten tearful and ten non-tearful portraits were selected and alternated in the exhibition. Participants visited the exhibition, completed a survey, and were invited to make an online donation to support refugees. The exhibition was then transferred to the Living Lab at Utrecht University Science Park Library as part of the follow-up project implemented in collaboration with the Incluusion program, which offers refugees free education.
In Study 4 (N = 900), we aimed to test the effects of tearful portrayals of refugees on helping intentions and behavior via refugees’ perceived needs and to replicate the effect of compassion in the tears-help link. While the results of this experiment replicated the role of compassion, they did not reveal effects on any type of perceived needs.
The findings from these experiments, as well as the meta-analytical integration of the data, indicated that depictions of refugees showing emotional tears have an impact on people’s willingness to offer refugees both immediate (dependency-oriented) and agency-promoting (i.e. autonomy-oriented) help, as well as helping behavior (donation) through the activation of compassionate feelings. We reported the results of these studies in an article currently under review for a special issue on refugee inclusion and integration (Bobowik et al., under review) and disseminated them at various international conferences.
In addition to this research, we also developed collaborative projects aimed at providing techniques for measuring prosocial behavior, including solidarity with refugees (one of the aims in the TEARAID project). One experimental study examined the role of audiovisual narratives about migrants as exemplars in promoting positive attitudes and prosocial behavior toward immigrants (Alonso-Arbiol, Bobowik et al., in press in Group Processes and Intergroup Relations). Another study addressed the role of prosocial dispositions and European identity in predicting helping Ukrainian refugees (Politi et al., 2022, under review). Finally, several survey-based studies explored the role of historical analogies in promoting positive attitudes and solidarity with refugees (Bobowik, et al., in preparation).
In the second stage, we conducted four additional experiments, including online and field studies, in collaboration with the non-governmental organization Refugee Today (https://www.refugee.today(opens in new window)). These experiments were designed to test the effects of tearful portrayals of refugees on intergroup helping intentions and behavior through felt emotions. For Studies 1 and 2, we exposed native-born Dutch participants (N = 1698) to various experimental conditions involving a video of a refugee either not showing or showing tears. Participants then completed a questionnaire and were asked to engage in real fundraising action.
In Study 3 (N = 209), we tested the effects of emotional tears on helping in a real social setting of a photography exhibition during a science festival. For this study, we validated 26 non-tearful and 26 equivalent tearful portraits of the same refugees taken by Refugee Today. Ten tearful and ten non-tearful portraits were selected and alternated in the exhibition. Participants visited the exhibition, completed a survey, and were invited to make an online donation to support refugees. The exhibition was then transferred to the Living Lab at Utrecht University Science Park Library as part of the follow-up project implemented in collaboration with the Incluusion program, which offers refugees free education.
In Study 4 (N = 900), we aimed to test the effects of tearful portrayals of refugees on helping intentions and behavior via refugees’ perceived needs and to replicate the effect of compassion in the tears-help link. While the results of this experiment replicated the role of compassion, they did not reveal effects on any type of perceived needs.
The findings from these experiments, as well as the meta-analytical integration of the data, indicated that depictions of refugees showing emotional tears have an impact on people’s willingness to offer refugees both immediate (dependency-oriented) and agency-promoting (i.e. autonomy-oriented) help, as well as helping behavior (donation) through the activation of compassionate feelings. We reported the results of these studies in an article currently under review for a special issue on refugee inclusion and integration (Bobowik et al., under review) and disseminated them at various international conferences.
In addition to this research, we also developed collaborative projects aimed at providing techniques for measuring prosocial behavior, including solidarity with refugees (one of the aims in the TEARAID project). One experimental study examined the role of audiovisual narratives about migrants as exemplars in promoting positive attitudes and prosocial behavior toward immigrants (Alonso-Arbiol, Bobowik et al., in press in Group Processes and Intergroup Relations). Another study addressed the role of prosocial dispositions and European identity in predicting helping Ukrainian refugees (Politi et al., 2022, under review). Finally, several survey-based studies explored the role of historical analogies in promoting positive attitudes and solidarity with refugees (Bobowik, et al., in preparation).
The TEARAID project has made a significant contribution to the field of migration and interethnic relations studies by providing new insights into the impact of visual framing of refugee emotions on prosocial behavior. In parallel, our findings also contribute to emotion science by showing the effects of tearful expressions on real prosocial behavior, and two different types of intergroup helping. The project is the first of its kind to provide evidence that exposure to portrayals of refugees with tears can have an impact on people’s willingness to offer refugees assistance, as well as participation in solidary initiatives. Jointly, the robust nation-wide online experiments and the citizen science field research have generated new knowledge for addressing societal challenges in the field of migration, including the mass media coverage of refugee stories and the efficacy of existing fundraising social initiatives oriented at fostering solidarity with refugees.
The project has also significant social impact, as it has generated synergy between researchers in social sciences, a non-profit organization, a broader community, and several other stakeholders. One of the highlights of the social impact is the collaboration with Refugee Today, which facilitated materials to implement experimental studies and valuable insights into the refugee experience and needs. The participatory approach of the project has also provided real financial resources for sharing the refugees’ stories with the broader community.
The project has also significant social impact, as it has generated synergy between researchers in social sciences, a non-profit organization, a broader community, and several other stakeholders. One of the highlights of the social impact is the collaboration with Refugee Today, which facilitated materials to implement experimental studies and valuable insights into the refugee experience and needs. The participatory approach of the project has also provided real financial resources for sharing the refugees’ stories with the broader community.