Objectives: The global objective of this work was to develop simple, cheap, and reliable (although still presumptive) sensing solutions for the benzodiazepines (BDZ, date rape drugs) detection. The innovative approach of this project is a resultant of a three main streams: (i) Use of 3D printing to develop sensing platforms, (ii) electroanalysis at the electrified liquid-liquid interface (eLLI) defining sensing and selectivity by molecular partitioning properties and (iii) comprehensive electroanalytical screening focused on BDZ and their potential co-existing interfering species.
Background: BDZ are psychoactive chemical substances renowned for their ability to induce sedation and aid sleep; thus, prescribed to treat a range of clinical conditions that include anxiety, insomnia, muscle spasms, epilepsy, and alcohol withdrawal symptoms. At present, about 38 BDZ drugs are authorized as psychotropic substances based on the United Nations Convention from 1971 with the Etizolam and Flualprazolam being the latest addition to the list from 2020.
Scientific concern and ambitious challenge: The 2021 report of the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) has listed about thirty new BDZ analogues into the EU early warning system and all of them were discovered within the past two decades (two of them attained legal status in 2020). Among the thirty substances, about 53% (16) were found on the EU illicit drug market within a period of four-year time (2016-2019). In 2019, a total number of 1334 BDZ abuse were recorded in the EU among this about 1240 (93%) cases were related to the designer BDZ substances listed in the EU Early Warning System. Owing to the multiple reports of drug-facilitated sexual assaults a renowned BDZ drug, flunitrazepam (Rohypnol) was revoked from the EU market in 2007. In 2018, about 7 out of 10 opioid-related deaths in Scotland were correlated to poly-drug use related to the combination of BDZ substances. In Poland, post-mortem toxicology examination data of 202 drug-related deaths in Warsaw (2015-2016) have documented the presence of BDZ in 5% of the cases. In the year 2020, the EMCDDA has reported concerning numbers of BDZ linked drug-facilitated sexual assaults and thefts. Reports mentioned the presence of clozapine, clonazolam, diclazepam, flubromazolam, and flualprazolam in the liquid samples collected from the spot of crime.
The BDZ-related problem is much more complicated as compared with other illicit drugs. New designer BDZ analogues can be relatively cheaper and readily available than the prescribed BDZ drugs. Thanks to the ease of synthetic procedures, more and more new designer BDZ compounds with high potency are emerging into the market. Given these concerns on the social security, personal health, and economic complexity of BDZ drugs abuse it is necessary to strengthen the on the spot screening protocols to test BDZ drug spiking. This project was aimed develop such tools to evade BDZ related social crimes and health hazards. Solutions presented in this project are fully applicable for the presumptive analysis of BDZ drugs on the sport and by non-expects with minimal trainings.
