Safety of alternative nuclear fuel for VVER reactors

Twenty Russian-designed VVER reactors exist in the EU[[These are to be found in Bulgaria (two reactors), Czechia (six), Finland (two), Hungary (four) and Slovakia (four with another two – units 3 and 4 in Mochovce – being commissioned).]] and fifteen in Ukraine. The functioning of those reactors depends mainly on Russian-produced nuclear fuel. EU sanctions following Russia's invasion of Ukraine made it necessary to strengthen the security of supply for these nuclear power plants. Although there were several attempts in the last two decades in both EU and Ukraine[[For example, Euratom H2020 project ESSANUF (European Supply of Safe Nuclear Fuel) or INSC project (Strengthening of State Nuclear Regulatory Inspectorate of Ukraine -SNRIU- capabilities relevant for the regulation of nuclear activities and in licensing and severe accident management of Nuclear Installations).]] to establish an alternative supplier of the nuclear fuel for the VVER reactors, outcomes were not sufficient to ensure the secu