Periodic Reporting for period 1 - SETRU-2.0 (Stone sarcophagi of Etruria: renewing research in the digital era)
Berichtszeitraum: 2024-02-01 bis 2026-01-31
The SETRU-2.0 project aimed to establish a new inventory of Etruscan stone sarcophagi of all types and craftmanship dating from the first millennium BCE, examining them not only – anymore – from the perspective of art history (iconography) and epigraphy, but also and mainly from the point of view of craft and economic practices. The methods used to study the sarcophagi included a typological and traceological approach, as well as the use of digital tools rarely or never previously employed in Etruscology to study Stone sarcophagi are one of the most important witnesses of Etruscan funerary art and craftmanship. Although a few examples are attested between the 8th and the 5th centuries BC (Orientalist, Archaic and Classical periods), most of the production dates from the 4th-2nd centuries BC (Hellenistic period) and is mainly distributed in the necropolises of the southern Etruria (northern Lazio), and more specifically in the territory of the city of Tarquinia. The reference publication on these objects dates from the mid-20th century and concerns only Hellenistic decorated pieces, studied through the prism of art history (iconography, stylistics); it was expanded in 1974 and 2004 to form a corpus of ca. 420 decorated sarcophagi well preserved. The undecorated specimens have never been taken into consideration, even though they represent between half and two third of the Etruscan stone sarcophagi of this period. The earliest examples have never been the subject of a synthetic study any more. The SETRU-2.0 project aims to fill the gaps in research on all Etruscan stone sarcophagi and to establish a new reference publication that goes beyond artistic and stylistic considerations, through a complete inventory these objects and a methodological guide applicable to future discoveries and other type of handmade products. Its originality lies in the fact that it considers the entire production (from the 8th to the 2nd century BC; sarcophagi whole or fragmentary, decorated or not, painted or not, inscribed or not, of fine or coarse workmanship), on a global and interdisciplinary approach (archaeology, art history, epigraphy, geology, etc.), and on the implementation of a specific methodology, from the study of tool marks to the use of 3D surveying (mainly photogrammetry) and analysis tools and techniques (GIS, 3D modelling).
This ambitious project has undergone adjustments in response to the challenges and opportunities encountered, whether these related to access to archives or artefacts (within museums or in tombs), the people met, or the ad hoc or more long-term collaborations that emerged or continued. Facing this challenges, it was decided to focus on the inventory and study of sarcophagi from the 4th to 1st centuries BC, which are the most numerous and best documented, as well as on the methodological aspects of the project (typology, GIS, 3D surveys).
About 80 necropolises exhibiting great diversity in terms of their size and layout, as well as their relationship (geographical proximity) to the city to which they belong. They generally date from the mid-4th century to the 2nd or even 1st century BC, thus offering a fairly comprehensive picture of the evolution of funerary practices (the use of sarcophagi) as well as craft and economic practices. The production and use of stone sarcophagi were particularly widespread in the territory of the city of Tarquinia (northern Latium), with several hundred examples recorded in the necropolises of Ferento, Musarna, Norchia, Surina, Tarquinia and Tuscania. More than 1,200 sarcophagi have been recorded, just under half of which feature decoration (on the chest and/or the lid). They are mostly complete (with both chest and lid documented) and in fairly good condition (highly fragmented examples remain rare). The level of documentation varies considerably, but two-thirds of the corpus has been directly observed and studied by me from a technical perspective, and has been photographed and, in some cases, surveyed in 3D.
From a methodological perspective, the project’s three main objectives have been achieved. A protocol for studying sarcophagus chests and lids has been established, based on a standardised data sheet and analysis grid that allows for the recording and comparison of data of varying quality and origin (archives, publications, direct observations), as well as on a detailed traceological study of the objects, both with the naked eye and using 3D models created via photogrammetry. A new typological chronology has been developed, based on morphological and technical criteria, and serving both descriptive and analytical purposes. All the data is compiled in a geographical database implemented in QGIS, which enables qualitative and quantitative analysis but also – and perhaps above all – the production of multi-scale, thematic or chronological maps. All these elements are unprecedented in Etruscology and can be applied to other categories of objects.
All the bibliographic and archival data, as well as the direct observations made during the project, have been compiled into a specially developed GIS, which enables a multi-scale study, statistical analysis and the production of original maps. The research findings will be disseminated through methodological publications and detailed case studies, whilst the entire corpus and a summary will be presented in a monograph which will, we hope, become the new standard work on the subject, following on from that of R. Herbig. The corpus published will be expanded as new discoveries are made, in museums as well as during excavations.
this type of object (GIS, 3D).
This ambitious project has undergone adjustments in response to the challenges and opportunities encountered, whether these related to access to archives or artefacts (within museums or in tombs), the people met, or the ad hoc or more long-term collaborations that emerged or continued. Facing this challenges, it was decided to focus on the inventory and study of sarcophagi from the 4th to 1st centuries BC, which are the most numerous and best documented, as well as on the methodological aspects of the project (typology, GIS, 3D surveys).
About 80 necropolises exhibiting great diversity in terms of their size and layout, as well as their relationship (geographical proximity) to the city to which they belong. They generally date from the mid-4th century to the 2nd or even 1st century BC, thus offering a fairly comprehensive picture of the evolution of funerary practices (the use of sarcophagi) as well as craft and economic practices. The production and use of stone sarcophagi were particularly widespread in the territory of the city of Tarquinia (northern Latium), with several hundred examples recorded in the necropolises of Ferento, Musarna, Norchia, Surina, Tarquinia and Tuscania. More than 1,200 sarcophagi have been recorded, just under half of which feature decoration (on the chest and/or the lid). They are mostly complete (with both chest and lid documented) and in fairly good condition (highly fragmented examples remain rare). The level of documentation varies considerably, but two-thirds of the corpus has been directly observed and studied by me from a technical perspective, and has been photographed and, in some cases, surveyed in 3D.
From a methodological perspective, the project’s three main objectives have been achieved. A protocol for studying sarcophagus chests and lids has been established, based on a standardised data sheet and analysis grid that allows for the recording and comparison of data of varying quality and origin (archives, publications, direct observations), as well as on a detailed traceological study of the objects, both with the naked eye and using 3D models created via photogrammetry. A new typological chronology has been developed, based on morphological and technical criteria, and serving both descriptive and analytical purposes. All the data is compiled in a geographical database implemented in QGIS, which enables qualitative and quantitative analysis but also – and perhaps above all – the production of multi-scale, thematic or chronological maps. All these elements are unprecedented in Etruscology and can be applied to other categories of objects.
All the bibliographic and archival data, as well as the direct observations made during the project, have been compiled into a specially developed GIS, which enables a multi-scale study, statistical analysis and the production of original maps. The research findings will be disseminated through methodological publications and detailed case studies, whilst the entire corpus and a summary will be presented in a monograph which will, we hope, become the new standard work on the subject, following on from that of R. Herbig. The corpus published will be expanded as new discoveries are made, in museums as well as during excavations.
this type of object (GIS, 3D).
The first phase of the project involved establishing a methodology, whilst conducting a review of the current state of research and compiling an inventory based on the existing literature and the most readily accessible archives. The activities carried out and the results of the project are being, or will be, published online in stages on the research blog setru.hypotheses.org. In view of the project’s challenges and objectives, the focus then shifted to the direct study of more than 500 sarcophagus chests and lids held in Italian and European museums (due to time constraints and authorisation issues, not all could be visited), in state archaeological repositories, or in situ within burial chambers; the contexts of intervention and observation, which were often constrained (accessibility of the objects, lighting, etc.), limited the observations, data acquisition (resulting in incomplete records) and digitisation possibilities. The 3D models generated offer new modes of representation and access to new information, notably by making visible what is sometimes barely perceptible to the naked eye or only by touch (another dimension of traceological study); they also enable the objects studied to be showcased, through their display or, in partnership with museums, within the framework of a virtual exhibition.
For the first time, as part of a collaborative project on the volcanic rocks of Lazio, several groups of sarcophagi from the necropolises of Castel d’Asso, Musarna and Norchia have been subjected to a systematic petrographic study: visual identification on the one hand, and XRF and physico-chemical analyses as well as thin-section examination on the other. The results are expected in April 2026 and will be published.
Furthermore, the organisation of several experimental archaeology sessions has greatly advanced our understanding not only of the extraction and carving of the blocks used to construct the sarcophagi, but also of how they were transported (with limited resources and manpower).
The study of quarries and rock-cut sites (monumental tombs carved into the rock) at Cerverteri, Norchia and Tarquinia has raised awareness within the Etruscological community of the value of a technical approach, which aims not only to identify the tools used and the methods employed in excavating a site, but also enables us to understand the overall organisation of a construction site, as well as to explain architectural choices or variations on a model resulting from adaptation to technical constraints of the substrate or the craftsmanship of the artisans.
For the first time, as part of a collaborative project on the volcanic rocks of Lazio, several groups of sarcophagi from the necropolises of Castel d’Asso, Musarna and Norchia have been subjected to a systematic petrographic study: visual identification on the one hand, and XRF and physico-chemical analyses as well as thin-section examination on the other. The results are expected in April 2026 and will be published.
Furthermore, the organisation of several experimental archaeology sessions has greatly advanced our understanding not only of the extraction and carving of the blocks used to construct the sarcophagi, but also of how they were transported (with limited resources and manpower).
The study of quarries and rock-cut sites (monumental tombs carved into the rock) at Cerverteri, Norchia and Tarquinia has raised awareness within the Etruscological community of the value of a technical approach, which aims not only to identify the tools used and the methods employed in excavating a site, but also enables us to understand the overall organisation of a construction site, as well as to explain architectural choices or variations on a model resulting from adaptation to technical constraints of the substrate or the craftsmanship of the artisans.
The SETRU project has made it possible to update the corpus of Etruscan sarcophagi and, through its innovative technical, petrographic and digital approach to Etruscology, to offer a fresh perspective that sheds light both on Etruscan craftsmanship and on the economy of stone and sculpture in southern Etruria, and in the Tarquinia area in particular. The cartographic database and monograph, which will soon be available, will constitute major tools and resources in the field. On completion of the project, a reliable and adaptable protocol for the study, recording and surveying of artefacts will be available, which can be used to examine items that were not studied as part of the project or that may be discovered in the future.
The project and its initial findings have been presented on several occasions at public lectures (the Musarna project), research seminars (Tarquinia quarry, study day on volcanic stone sculpture) or at international conferences (Cerveteri tombs, project methodology [EAA 2025], digital and 3D aspects of the Musarna project [CAA 2025]).
More broadly, the completion of the SETRU 2.0 project has demonstrated the full potential of a technical and craft-based approach to the study of stone artefacts, as well as rock-cut sites, monumental tombs and stone quarries. New projects, whether individual or collaborative, will undoubtedly emerge in the coming years to explore this new area of research.
Communicating the study’s findings to the general public is a key priority, and progress has already been made through a series of public lectures held in 2025, the publication online of 3D models of sarcophagi and tombs, and collaborative projects with several museums in northern Latium (Tarquinia, Viterbo).
The project and its initial findings have been presented on several occasions at public lectures (the Musarna project), research seminars (Tarquinia quarry, study day on volcanic stone sculpture) or at international conferences (Cerveteri tombs, project methodology [EAA 2025], digital and 3D aspects of the Musarna project [CAA 2025]).
More broadly, the completion of the SETRU 2.0 project has demonstrated the full potential of a technical and craft-based approach to the study of stone artefacts, as well as rock-cut sites, monumental tombs and stone quarries. New projects, whether individual or collaborative, will undoubtedly emerge in the coming years to explore this new area of research.
Communicating the study’s findings to the general public is a key priority, and progress has already been made through a series of public lectures held in 2025, the publication online of 3D models of sarcophagi and tombs, and collaborative projects with several museums in northern Latium (Tarquinia, Viterbo).