Final Report Summary - ECNET (EU-CHINA Nuclear Education and Training Cooperation)
Executive Summary:
The general objective of the ECNET project is to coordinate the cooperation between the EU and China in the field of Nuclear Education, Training and Knowledge Management in three areas: Nuclear Engineering, Radiation Protection and Nuclear Waste Management and Geological Disposal. For each of the areas the framework, the objectives and the strategy for long term cooperation are described.
The strategies are developed on the basis of the exchange of information on the current status and expected developments in the nuclear sector, the corresponding needs for academic education and professional training, the courses, the curricula, and the training programmes.
The section addressing Nuclear Engineering describes the current nuclear energy status in the EU, the assessments of the current manpower and the future needs, the response and funding provided by Governments, industries, nuclear education networks and the actions by national regulatory bodies. The organisation of nuclear education and training is described, not only at the higher education levels, but also at the craftsman and technical level, as well as initiatives to "nuclearize" non-nuclear professionals. Lack of input from the Chinese side on nuclear engineering E&T in this project prevented any detailed reporting, but ample information and return of experience from past exchanges between the EU and China is provided in the section dealing with exchange programmes in general engineering as well as for nuclear engineering.
The chapters on Radiation Protection E&T provide an elaborate review of the international safety standards covering radiation protection and the professionals in charge of its implementation. Detailed information is provided on the EU and national legislation and directives, the regulator coordination and cooperation bodies, as well for the nuclear industry and the research facilities, as for the protection of the patients and staff in the medical nuclear sector. The expected development and coordination at European level is described, with the detailed qualifications and education and training needs for the two qualified staff categories, the Radiatio Protection Expert and the Radiation Protection Officer. Input received from the Chinese side indicates that 5 to 10 Chinese universities provide a curriculum in radiation protection. As a typical example, the postgraduate MSc curriculum at Tsinghua University in Beijing is provided.
With respect to Nuclear Waste Management and Geological Disposal, the report provides a review of national policies, reserach and demonstration facilities and the associated opportunities for education and training. The PETRUS concept is presented, drawing students from different disciplines (mining, geology, construction, hydrology, engineering, etc.) into a common set of courses and a thesis work addressing specific nuclear waste management and disposal issues. The Chinese education system and higher education system is analysed with a view on the needs for professionals in the current Chinese nuclear waste management and disposal policy. A proposal for cooperation between the EU and China in this field is developed and described in detail.
The fourth part of the report addresses the implementation of mutual recognition of curricula between European and Chinese academia and the exchange of credits for students. The proposal includes the design and development of pilot courses in the three areas. Unfortunately the lack of response from the Chinese side prevented the organisation of joint exchange courses in this project, but a wealth of results from past experience with such exchanges is reported.
The fifth part of the report addresses the selection of nuclear facilities, laboratories and equipment suitable for eductaion and training in the areas of interest in the project. The list contains both EU and Chinese entries on research reactors, thermal hydraulic facilties, computer simulators, research and demonstration facilities for nuclear waste disposal and laboratories in support of E&T in radiation protection and dosimetry.
The final part of the report covers a series of questions to be answered in a new EU-Chinese cooperation project, where more response and interaction should be expected, and a set of recommendations for the continuation and enhancement of the current cooperation in E&T in the nuclear fields.
Project Context and Objectives:
4.1.2.1 Introduction
Based on the past experiences of each European organization, the objective of the ECNET project is to define a common basis and establish a common framework for effective cooperation between EU and Chinese organisations for Nuclear Education, Training and Knowledge Management.
The expected impacts are:
- to promote the mutual recognition of the Education and Training(E&T) programmes on EU and Chinese side
- to expand the exchanges of students, lectures and lecturers.
- to secure the knowledge management as appropriate.
These would offer to the End-Users a broader basis of human resources and foster cooperation in nuclear power development.
As the first step, the ECNET project handles the analysis of the present situation on EU and Chinese sides, to clarify opportunities and barriers for cooperation, and define a road map for long-term cooperation and the preparation of a good basis for further long-term cooperation in the future.
The scope of the project is:
- Master level and postgraduate education
- Training mainly for young professionals
The Chinese counterparts are supported by China Atomic Energy Authority (CAEA) in the framework of the EURATOM – CAEA Coordinated Activity in Nuclear Fission. The Chinese side agreed to contribute to this project for the same amount of work (40 man-month), as shown in the Letter of confirmation by CAEA.
CAEA is the Chinese governmental organization in charge of peaceful use of atomic energy. Its main functions include:
- Deliberating and drawing up policies and regulations on peaceful uses of nuclear energy;
- Deliberating and drawing up the development programming, planning and industrial standards for peaceful uses of nuclear energy;
- Organizing argumentation and giving approval to China's major nuclear R&D projects; supervising and coordinating the implementation of the major nuclear R&D projects;
- Carrying out nuclear material control, nuclear export supervision and management;
- Dealing with the exchange and cooperation in governments and international organizations, and taking part in IAEA and its activities in the name of the Chinese government;
- Taking the lead to organize the State Committee of Nuclear Accident Coordination, deliberating, drawing up and implementing national plan for nuclear accident emergency.
This project consist of four parts of work
a) Needs and strategies of long-term cooperation in the following three subjects:
- Nuclear Engineering
- Radiation Protection
- Waste Management and Disposal
b) Mutual recognition of credit systems for academic education (ECTS) and vocational training (ECVET)
c) E&T facilities, laboratories and equipments
d) Project management
The Chinese side agrees to work in the same structure; therefore each WP has two leading organizations, one of EU side and the other of Chinese side. The detailed descriptions of the Chinese counterparts are given in section xxx
It is expected to implement the designed pilot items under the ECNET project at a trial scale (e.g. cross participation in relevant events and courses, exchange of course curricula, exchange of students and lectures, development of specific E&T programs, preparation of textbook and materials, distance learning, knowledge management) in any appropriate multilateral and/or bilateral framework, mainly by the project partners. Establishment of an "EU-China Centre for Nuclear Education and Training" is also discussed as a future possibility.
4.1.2.2 European Nuclear Education Network (ENEN) Association
As of March 2010 the ENEN Association has 56 members in 18 EU countries, South Africa, Russian Federation, Ukraine and Japan. One of the concepts of this project is to allow all ENEN members to contribute to the project, in particular for the future pilot items for E&T according to the recommendations by the Work Areas ENgineering, Radiation Protection and Waste Management and Disposal. The information provided by the ENEN in terms of E&T courses, Maser program, PhD subjects etc. will also cover those provided by all ENEN members.
4.1.2.3 ENETRAP Consortium
The intended cooperation in the area of Radiation Protection is led by the Belgian Nuclear Research Centre (SCK•CEN) in Mol, Belgium, who is also coordinator of the ENETRAP-II project. The overall objective of this project is to develop European high-quality "reference standards" and good practices for education and training (E&T) in radiation protection, specifically with respect to the Radiation Protection Expert (RPE) and the Radiation Protection Officer (RPO). These "standards" will reflect the needs of the RPE and the RPO in all sectors where ionizing radiation is applied (nuclear industry, medical sector, research, non-nuclear industry).
4.1.2.4 PETRUS Consortium
The intended cooperation in the field of Waste Management and Disposal is led by the Institut National Polytechnique de Lorraine, which is also coordinator of the PETRUS project. The aim of this proposal is to enable present and future professionals on nuclear waste management in Europe, whatever their initial disciplinary background, to follow a training programme on geological disposal, which would be widely recognized across Europe. This ambitious aim will only be achieved over a close collaboration between all stakeholders and through an effective and flexible use of academic and non-academic resources and competences. In addressing the needs of the end-users, access to a combination of education (formal), continuous learning and professional development (non-formal), and on-the-job learning (informal) will be offered and developed within the project. The PETRUS group has developed a structure for addressing education in the field of the geological disposal. The implementation of a high quality education at the Master level together with the training instruments and schemes that will be developed during the project will ensure supplying necessary expertise on the field of radioactive waste management and underground disposal both in quantity and quality. Besides, the project targets the development of a qualification framework (“training passport”) that is in the interest of different end-users and trainees as it facilitates lifelong learning, helps end-users matching skill demand with supply, and guides individuals in their choice of training. Finally, the project aims at networking all the training actors in order to form and foster the “geological disposal training market” in a sustainable way.
4.1.2.5 The organizations involved in the Chinese side project are:
4.1.2.5.1 Tsinghua University (THU)
Tsinghua University was established in 1911. The faculty greatly valued the interaction between Chinese and Western cultures, the sciences and humanities, the ancient and modern. After the founding of the People's Republic of China, the University was molded into a polytechnic institute focusing on engineering in the nationwide restructuring of universities and colleges undertaken in 1952. Since China opened up to the world in 1978, Tsinghua University has developed at a breathtaking pace into a comprehensive research-type university. At present, the university has 14 schools and 56 departments with faculties in science, engineering, humanities, law, medicine, history, philosophy, economics, management, education and art. The University has now over 30,000 students, including undergraduates and graduate students. As one of China’s most renowned universities, Tsinghua has become an important institution for fostering talent and scientific research. The educational philosophy of Tsinghua is to "train students with integrity." There are two organizations in Tsinghua University which are involved in nuclear education. They are the Institute of Nuclear and New Energy Technology (INET) and the Department of Engineering Physics (DEP).
INET was founded in 1960 as a top nuclear education and research base in China. In the last forty years, it has become a comprehensive education and research center with multi-disciplinary research, design and engineering projects mainly in nuclear technology. Since it was founded, INET has set up a twin-core swimming-pool type Experimental Shielding Reactor, a 5MW Nuclear Heating Reactor (NHR-5) and a 10MW High Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactor (HTR-10). INET's nuclear education and research involves a wide spectrum covering nuclear engineering, nuclear safety and radiation protection, nuclear material and fuel cycle, nuclear waste management and so on. There are around 500 faculty and staff members and over 300 graduated students in INET. DEP focuses on undergraduate education and has research programmes on radiation protection, plasma technology and so on.
4.1.2.5.2. North China Electric Power University (NCEPU)
North China Electric Power University (NCEPU), founded in 1958 and designated by the State Council as a key university in China in 1978, is affiliated with the Ministry of Education and officially listed as one of the “211 project” universities. NCEPU is composed of two respective campuses in Beijing and Baoding, with its main campus in Beijing. The Baoding campus covers an area of 40 hectares and the Beijing campus covers an area of 107.27 hectares. NCEPU holds school buildings of 1,000,000 square meters and fixed assets of 2.1 billion RBM, including 0.3 billion RBM allocated to scientific and teaching facilities. NCEPU possesses a high-quality teaching staff with a total number of 1610 professional teachers, including 256 professors, 407 associate professors, and three academicians of the Chinese Academy of Engineering. NCEPU has, at present, more than 38000 full-time students, including 19000 undergraduates and 6300 post-graduates.
The School of Nuclear Science and Engineering of North China Electric Power University was founded in 2007 on the basis of the discipline of Nuclear Science and Nuclear Technology , which was belonged to the School of Energy and Power Engineering. The school is situated in Beijing campus with Professor Lu Daogang as the Dean of the School of Nuclear Science and Engineering, the academician Fang Mingwu as its Honorary Dean and the academician Zhou Yongmao as its Director of Academic Committee. All of the professional teachers have Ph.D and undertake undergraduate and graduate teaching duties as well as engage in research, including scientific projects at the national level from National Natural Science Fund, “863” and “973” national research projects.
The School of Nuclear Science and Engineering is composed of two divisions: Nuclear Science and Nuclear Technology, and Radiation Protection and Environmental Protection. With the completion of the four laboratories: Lab of Nuclear Radiation Measurement and Protection, Lab of Pressurized Water Reactor Nuclear Power Plant Model, Lab of Nuclear Power Plant Safety and Simulation Technology, and High Performance Computing Laboratory of Nuclear Reactor, the school can have more better educational and research resources, creating the good conditions of learning and scientific research for the faculties and students.
4.1.2.5.3. Southwest University of Science and Technology (SWUST)
Lying in Mianyang, Sichuan (a nuclear rich prince), SWUST has 17 schools and one department, covering engineering, science, economics, laws, arts, agriculture, management and education. It awards bachelor’s degree in 65 fields, master’s degree in 34 fields, engineering master’s degree in 5 fields, it also delivers joint doctoral programs in 4 fields with the assistance of China Academy of Engineering Physics. There are about 1600 academics and 400 staff individuals. It accommodates over 26000 students, both domestic and international. SWUST School of Science and Technology offers undergraduate programs in radioactive waste treatment & disposal, radiological protection & environment, nuclear technology & application, and reactor engineering; it also offers engineering master’s program in nuclear energy & engineering. The school takes advantage of 1 ministrially key discipline lab on nuclear waste & environmental safety, and takes active part in international cooperation, paying much more attention to radioactive waste treatment & disposal and network education.
4.1.2.5.4. Harbin Engineering University (HEU)
Harbin Engineering University (HEU) is a national key university, founded in 1953. It is among the first batch of "211 Project" universities. HEU is an important base for talent training and scientific research in the fields of ship industry, ocean exploration and nuclear application. There are now 21000 students at register including 7000 graduate students and 13000 undergraduate students. HEU has 1500 teachers including 300 professors and 400 associate professors.
College of Nuclear Science and Technology (CNST) of HEU was founded on Dec. 12th, 2005, on the basis of the Department of Nuclear Power Plant which was originally founded in 1959.
At present, the CNST has 4 undergraduate specialties: Nuclear Reactor Engineering, Radiation Protection and Environment Engineering, Nuclear Technology, Nuclear Chemical Industry and Fuel Cycle Engineering; and 4 Master Stations: Nuclear Science and Engineering, Radiation Protection and Environment Protection, Nuclear Technology and Application, Nuclear Fuel Cycle and Material.
There are 65 full-time staffs in CNST, including 15 full-time professors, 13 associate professors. CNST invites 12 part-time adjunct professors from other institutes or universities, invites 11 overseas Master Professors through “111” Project.
CNST increased its enrollment number since 2006. Currently, 1244 students are at register in CNST. CNST also undertakes the training tasks for some nuclear power stations. CNST provides two modes of training for China Guangdong Nuclear Power Holding Co. Ltd. (CGNPC).
CNST has a National Defense S&T Innovative Team, a state key discipline Laboratory of Nuclear Safety and Simulation, and a provincial key Laboratory of Radiation Protection.
The College has participated in the whole research and development process of NPP of China and has undertaken more than 50 research projects including many key and special state projects. By far, several research fields have been developed: NPP Operation and Simulation, Nuclear Reactor Thermo-hydraulics, NPP Characteristics, NPP Control and Measurement, NPP Safety and Reliability, Nuclear Reactor Physics.
CNST has been in close contact with schools and research centers both at home and abroad. HEU participates in an IAEA TC project: Enhancing the Capabilities of National Institutes Supporting Nuclear Power Development (CPR4032). CNST is one of the 8 centers in the project, an Upgraded Center for Nuclear Education & Training.
4.1.2.5.5. School of Nuclear Science and Engieering Shanghai Jiao Tong University (SJTU)
Established in 1958, the School of Nuclear Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, is one of the most well known nuclear engineering departments in China. The basic disciplines for student education and training contain the fields such as nuclear power plant systems, nuclear thermal-hydraulics, reactor physics, nuclear safety, radiation protection, nuclear system control and operation and nuclear material. The education and training activities are mainly oriented to the needs of nuclear power related organizations concerning design, construction, operation and research of nuclear power systems.
The School of Nuclear Science and Engineering (SNSE) was established in 2006, including three departments, i.e. Department of Reactor Engineering, Department of Nuclear Material & Fuel, Department of Radiation Protection & Nuclear Technology Application. Five research sections have been set up for various research subjects, i.e. Section of Advanced Nuclear Systems and Safety, Section of Nuclear Thermal-Hydraulics, Section of Reactor Physics, Section of Reactor Structure & Material, Section of Radiation Protection & Environment. The infrastructures, such as an education & training center, experimental facilities and a software platform, have been established. The School is being in charge of and participating in a large number of research projects sponsored by the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST), the Ministry of Education (MOE), by the Shanghai local government and by national and international nuclear industries. The School has set up student summer schools with many famous international universities and sponsored international symposiums.
4.1.2.5.6. China National Nuclear Corporation, Graduate School (CNNC/GS)
With approval of the former Commission of Science, Technology and Industry for National Defense and the Ministry of Education of China, CNNC Graduate School (CNNC/GS) was established in 1985 under China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC), the former Ministry of Nuclear Industry. CNNC/GS aims at education of MA and PhD students and training of high-level technical and management talents in nuclear fields. Up to now, CNNC Graduate School has enrolled over 2300 MA and PhD students and over 2600 technicians needed urgently in the design, construction and safe operation of reactors and nuclear power plants in China. CNNC/GS provides nuclear Education and Training. It is well-equipped with the advanced software and hardware. Supported by China Institute of Atomic Energy (CIAE), CNNC/GS has abundant resource of teachers and a great number of experimental facilities available for student’s experiments and practice. In addition, there have been complete sets of curricula as well as the well-written text books for teaching and training.
4.1.2.5.7. Xi’ an Jiao Tong University (XJTU)
Xi’an Jiaotong University is one of the most important universities in China with the department of nuclear engineering which was established in 1958. The School of Nuclear Science and Technology are devoted to the education and research of Nuclear Engineering. There are two departments in the school, one is the department of Nuclear Engineering and the other is Nuclear Technology and application.
Researchers in the department of Nuclear Engineering devote in research of reactor physics, reactor thermal-hydraulics, reactor safety and control. The research are focused on Chinese commercial nuclear power plant(Qinshan NPP), high temperature gas-cooled reactor(HTR), china advanced research reactor(CARR), integrated reactor, molten salt reactor(MSR), supercritical water-cooled reactor(SCWR), traveling wave reactor(TWR) and other nuclear systems including passive residual heat removal system of AP1000, AC600. More than 20 analysis codes have been developed for the core design, thermal-hydraulics computation and safety simulation of the above advanced reactors. Fundamental research have also been conducted on the heat and flow mechanical behaviors in narrow annular channel, rectangle channel and other type element.
The available research facilities include a high pressure thermal-hydraulic test loop, high performance parallel computation station. Many experimental investigation and numerical simulation have been performed with these facilities. These facilities are also competent for the present investigation of supercritical water test loop under irradiation.
4.1.2.6 Work Plan
Following-up on the structured dialogue established between CAEA, the Chinese funding organization, and Euratom, and preparatory meetings with the Chinese counterparts, the Work plan has been constructed to develop a common ground for cooperation in nuclear education, training and knowledge management. The Work Packages (WP) reflect the different items identified as being the basis for such a common ground of cooperation. In a cascading analysis those items have been deployed into objectives, tasks, deliverables and milestones. The objectives of the Work Packages have been formulated to indicate the pathway to be followed for establishing the basis for cooperation. The different tasks to be implemented for achieving those objectives have been identified and documented in the description of the Work Packages. The progress of each task will be monitored along a series of milestones, leading to a deliverable, which documents the final completion of the task. The structure is intended to be simple and transparent in order to facilitate the monitoring of progress made and its communication to the Chinese counterparts.
As a result of the achievement of all the objectives of the entire project, a sustainable framework of cooperation with China will be established for nuclear Education and Training. The first step is to analyze the present situation and to define the needs and opportunities for cooperation in the long term. This analysis, which is carried out against the background of the current trends and future plans for the use of nuclear energy in the EU and China, will provide the key elements for defining the strategy for the development of the human resources. An extensive survey will be made of the nuclear Education and Training courses, sessions and opportunities in the respective fields of Nuclear Engineering, Radiation Protection and Radioactive Waste Management and Disposal. Candidate courses for student and teacher exchange programmes will be identified and evaluated. A selection will be made for the organization of pilot exchange courses. The pilot courses will be completely designed with respect to technical content, pedagogical aspects, participation modalities, mobility, etc.
Student mobility raises the question of mutual recognition of the courses by the home and the host institutes and the quantification of the course content in terms of the standard curriculum leading to a particular degree. Those questions will be addressed iwith the objective of establishing a framework for mutual recognition of courses in nuclear disciplines between the EU and China and reaching an agreement on the quantification of partial curricula for exchange purposes.
Aan inventory of available nuclear infrastructures, laboratories and equipments for students and teacher exchanges, as well as providing the access modalities and conditions will be establsihed.
The overall management of the project is assured by the ENEN Association, in close cooperation with the Work Package leaders in the Project Committee and with the Chinese counterparts through the EU-Chinese Project Committee.
An important component of the strategy of the Work Plan is of course the installation and operation of good communication channels with the Chinese counterparts to ensure the continuity of the cooperation during the project itself and its sustainability in the long term after the termination of the project. This strategy has already been initiated by participation to important bilateral meetings between the European Commission and the major Chinese organizations involved in education and training in the nuclear disciplines. The presentation of the ENEN Association, its members and its activities has always been on the agenda of those meetings and communication channels have been considerably strengthened with respect to the initial exchanges taking place during technical meetings organized by the International Atomic Energy Agency. Good contacts have therefore already been established and have been maintained during the preparation of this proposal.
4.1.2.7 The Consortium Partners
The consortium partners have been involved in the FP5 ENEN project or in the FP6 NEPTUNO and ENEN-II projects. Five out of eight are members of the ENEN Association, a legal entity established in September 2003 and they have been participating in coordination actions and cooperative projects for more than five years. Frequent contacts, meetings in the framework of the ENEN Association and joint activities, good communication channels, a common web site, student and teacher exchange programmes, and the services of a permanent ENEN Secretariat ensure and support an efficient network and a good perception of the individual capabilities and the strengths of the partners of the consortium. The project partners UPM, SCKCEN, INSTN, KIT, CIRTEN and ICL have a strong background of cooperation with Chinese academia and several staff involved in the project performed studies and research work in Chinese institutes in the early stages of their careers. Combining this experience with their involvement in the ENEN Association, they are in the best position to provide valuable input to a long term vision for cooperation in nuclear education and training with China, they have a good perception and understanding of the needs to be addressed and they can rely on their own personal experience to establish a workable and efficient framework for mobility of students and teachers. Also, they have a tradition of cooperation with Chinese research institutes and the exchange of information and experience. Their interest in and commitment to the project is beyond any doubt and their contribution to the project budget is secure. Therefore the risks of failure with respect to providing the proposed deliverables are very limited if not negligible. The ENEN Association, as a consortium in itself, will rely on its members to step in for specific tasks, for example quality assurance of the deliverables, with great flexibility in the distribution of tasks and associated funding. This flexibility will only require a minimum of administration and will ensure efficient and fast response if necessary.
From the Chinese side a clear commitment of the partners to the project has been observed during the preparatory work in the workshops and meetings. The interaction and response via email is fast and efficient. This mutual interest was again confirmed in an exchange of e-mails between the Chinese Atomic Energy Agency (CAEA) and EURATOM after the workshop in Beijing (March 22-24, 2010) and has been further developed during the meeting with the Secretary General of CAEA, Mr. WANG Yiren on 19 April in Brussels during the visit of 13 Chinese high-level representatives of government and industry. The letter of support by the CAEA for the parallel Chinese project has been received.
Project Results:
4.1.3.1 Needs and Strategies for Long Term Cooperation in Nuclear Engineering
4.1.3.1.1 Framework and Objectives
Nuclear engineering is a multidisciplinary subject, covering nuclear and reactor physics, material science, mechanics and thermalhydraulics, and others important areas as nuclear safety. For both electrical generation and medical or industrial applications, these disciplines will require expertise in nuclear engineering and science, in the next 30 or 40 years from now.
In a long-term horizon nuclear power is going to expand in countries of the EU and in China. Keeping open the nuclear option means an important effort of education and training, maintaining and also increasing the present personnel in both nuclear installations and research organizations. Education, training and knowledge management in nuclear engineering is a matter of worldwide concern in many countries, and it is one of the main objectives of the long-term cooperation between EU and China.
In this collaboration, we will identify and define the needs and strategies of long-term cooperation in the area of nuclear engineering. The roadmap and guidelines of cooperation between the EU and China and finally the items for a pilot student exchange system will be implemented to mutually recognize the credits of the academic nuclear engineering courses.
First, the work has been concentrated on the exchange of information between the EU and China about the current situation of the uses of nuclear energy, and on the existing programs in education and training in nuclear engineering in the universities involved in this cooperation. The focus in the existing programs was on Master courses, PhD subjects and training courses. All this information has been used to prepare a report dedicated to nuclear engineering.
In this sense, the report covers not only the existing information, but also the strategy for exchange students and lecturers, and the sharing of nuclear engineering curricula under the Bologna system. A general definition of certification, qualification, competence passport, and the analysis of the compatibility for futher exchanges of students and lecturers is an important aspect of the framework for long-term cooperation. Finally, the general terms and conditions for pilot experiences have to be defined and implemented, identifying courses of interest, with their number of credits, and their duration. A list of recommendations for the roadmap and the guidelines is provided in section 4.4.
4.1.3.1.2 Current Education &Training Framework in Nuclear Engineering in EU and China
Status of Nuclear Education and Training Programs.
The issue of human resources for the nuclear industry is still very current and vibrant, with multiple facets. Many issues still exist, albeit different from country to country, depending on their specific nuclear programme and situation, and, in particular, new challenges have emerged in relation to an anticipated nuclear revival. In response to these new market conditions, initiatives in nuclear education and training are still developing.
Many studies and major events have been sponsored to analyse national and international activities in education and training and the status and prospects of human resource development (HRD) in the nuclear sector, notably those promoted by the IAEA. These include the report ‘Status and Trends in Nuclear Education’ and the International Conference on Human Resource Development (Abu Dhabi, 14-18 March 2010).
Government initiatives and Strategic Planning
It is clear that a heavy engagement of governments is the key to maintain a nuclear knowledge base. Sustained government support, policies and vision are the most effective means to preserve and grow nuclear knowledge. It is really the responsibility of governments to take ownership of high-risk long-term R&D and to be the main actor in safety, security and safeguards.
Following the significant increased global interest in nuclear energy, many governments have undertaken or encouraged some actions related to nuclear energy. A few have amended their strategic energy plans in respect to their commitment to address nuclear energy issues including education, human resource capacity building and the related infrastructure, in some instances marking a real paradigm shift. There are a few countries, however, where governments have instead maintained a status quo, with little input at the governmental level in regard to the planning for nuclear HR needs. Some examples where positive strategic planning has been undertaken by governments are reported below, as well as few instances where this has been lacking.
In the United Kingdom, after a long period of stagnation, the government published its White Paper ‘The Role of Nuclear Power in a Low Carbon Economy’ in 2007. Inter alia, such policies resulted in the creation of the Office for Nuclear Development and in the roll-out of the regulatory process for new-build. These developments have also provided a framework to allow an integrated HR planning process to emerge.
Similarly, in Sweden, the difficult situation faced by the nuclear sector as a result of the phase-out decision and consequent lack of action by the government in terms of initiatives on nuclear E&T, has significantly changed with the decision early 2009 to allow the replacement of old reactors.
More recently, albeit less vigorously than in the UK, Italy has also taken steps to re-enter the nuclear sector, following a long moratorium that started in 1987. In 2004 a new Energy Law allowed ENEL to establish joint ventures with foreign companies, and, more importantly, a National Energy Strategy was introduced in 2008, which envisaged the new build of nuclear power plants with the target of 25% electricity production from this source by 2030 (equivalent to 8 to 10 new nuclear reactors).
Manpower Assessments
Faced with possible demographic issues in their existing nuclear industries and, increasingly, by the prospect of new nuclear build and the needs to provide adequate human resources, governments have, in many countries, undertaken manpower assessments, whose results have, in some cases, triggered actions to address gaps, e.g. through strategic infrastructure planning and financial support.
In France the government commissioned a study, released in early 2008, to assess the needs in high level nuclear education in terms of the specific skills required, in comparison with the available offers from the education system and its potential deficits. Following this report and its recommendations for universities and engineering schools to coordinate their efforts enabling a significant expansion of the educational offer, a council was set up, in the same year, by the French Minister for Research and Higher Education. Its role is to be an interface between industrial actors, the government and academic and public institutions.The “Conseil des Formations pour l’Energie Nucléaire” (CFEN ), as the Council was renamed in 2010, includes representatives of governmental authorities in education, research and industry, of academic institutions, of principal industrial actors (AREVA, EDF, GDF-SUEZ, ANDRA etc.) and the main nuclear R&D public institutions: the French Atomic Energy Commission (CEA) and the French Technical Safety Organisation, IRSN. Through the examination of research needs, the population of students, the education offer and its adequacy, CFEN advises on the need to open new academic curricula and co-ordinates international student recruitment. This close co-operation has already born fruit with the development of new curricula and a threefold increase in nuclear graduates within a three-year period.
Over the last decade and even prior to the White Paper, the UK government commissioned various important assessments on the manpower status of the nuclear industry; for instance the major ‘Study on Nuclear and Radiological Skills’ conducted in 2002. As one of the principal outcomes of such study, around 2003, the Cogent Sector Skills Council was established to facilitate a demand-led link between government, industry and E&T providers, with the direct involvement of regulators right at the outset of the programme definition. In 2004, the Cogent Sector Skills Council set up a Nuclear Employers Steering Group covering all aspects of workforce planning of the UK nuclear sector. The key role of Cogent has been to undertake in-depth analyses on the needs of the new-build labour market, assessing the shape of the workforce in the nuclear industry, identifying gaps, growth and the need for qualifications. This extensive task culminated in four ‘Renaissance’ reports, two of which were published in 2009 and 2010. The first report provided a comprehensive UK skills panorama of the industry today, whereas the more recent report: ‘Next Generation: Skills for New-Build Nuclear’ identified the likely demand for skills to support the nuclear industry for a specified new-build scenario. The study also defined specific skill sets which, in the absence of mitigating measures for the improvement of their supply capacity, could impact the timely accomplishment of the new build programme. Crucially, a Nuclear Energy Skills Alliance steering group has been set up to oversee the implementation of the ‘Next Generation’ report recommendations and to ensure that strategic and critical skill solutions are managed. Another significant recent report (May 2010) published by Cogent is the ‘Nuclear Skills Oracle 2010’, which provides a snapshot of the industry labour market based on a sizable cross section of employers.
In Italy, in 2006, a formal agreement was set up between the Ministry of Energy, ENEA and the universities to assess future needs for nuclear E&T in collaboration with industries and utilities. More recently, the government has made funds available to ENEA (2009-2011) to undertake a comprehensive review of the estimated skills needed to resource the national nuclear programme, a preliminary draft of which has been issued in May 2010. To satisfy the growing personnel demand, the Italian Ministry for Economic Development, the Ministry for Education and Research, and the Ministry for the Environment are budgeting funds for ENEA and the new ASN (Agenzia per la Sicurezza Nucleare) for man-power development. Financial resources have also been provided to reinforce present nuclear courses and to start new ones.
In the year 2000 the Finnish Ministry of Trade and Industry published a report on “Maintaining Nuclear Competence in Finland”, prepared through the cooperative effort of all nuclear organisations; and in 2001, 2005 and 2008, energy strategies have been released by the Government. The strategies cover climate and energy policy measures in great detail up to 2020, providing a brief outlook for the period thereafter, up to 2050. The Finnish Ministry of Employment and the Economy has also taken actions to foster capacity building in the nuclear sector.
Conversely, difficulties are still persisting in countries where policies to promote or sustain a healthy nuclear programme are absent or decisions on new-build are being deferred, and there has been little input at the governmental level in regard to planning for HR needs. In Switzerland, mainly due to political factors, the strategic energy planning has been strongly in support of renewable energy and energy conservation and this has not assisted the nuclear industry. At the university level, economic pressure has caused a shift of educational programmes away from “classical” fields such as nuclear physics, towards domains which currently appear more attractive to young students (life sciences, nanotechnology, etc.).
In Spain, the government has not set out any strategic energy planning in relation to nuclear energy but, nevertheless, nuclear educational programmes and staff at universities have been preserved, and new large nuclear infrastructures have been created for nuclear science mainly.
In Belgium, the government has committed to keep the three oldest Nuclear Power Plants open for an additional 10 years and is maintaining the scientific and technological potential needed to ensure optimum conditions for safety and performance, stating the need to keep the nuclear option open [Ref. Nuclear Competence Building]. However no strategic actions have been taken in this regard.
In Germany, nuclear power has not been represented as a considered option in the government strategic energy planning for the future, with inevitable impacts on nuclear E&T. Very limited support has been provided by the government for nuclear E&T and only a few programmes have been kept active, with emphasis principally on nuclear safety and waste management. Nonetheless, in spite of such unfavourable political situation and contrary to previous and recent forecasts, over the last years, the number of professors in nuclear education has seen a considerable rise.
Funding for Educational Resources
A number of countries have reported efforts of their governments to support young students R&D and facility modernisation through funding.
In Finland, basic training courses on nuclear safety are sustained by the government, as well as the national research programme. € 47 M was allocated in 2007 to fund nuclear research, primarily in waste management and reactor safety on the ‘Finnish Public Research Programme on Nuclear Power Plant Safety’ – SAFIR.
In Belgium, education and training activities are carried out by academic institutions and by the Belgian nuclear research centre (SCK•CEN), which covers 45% of his turnover directly from a government grant. The government has taken the important decision to keep supporting the MYRRHA project, allocating € 60million funds over 5 years. Prominent international projects such as MYRRHA are attractive for young researchers in the nuclear field.
In the UK, the government provides, indirectly, a significant amount of teaching and research funds to universities. Despite recession-driven reductions, government funds have been committed for 10,000 ring-fenced new places at universities for science, technology, engineering and mathematics provision. With the support of the government and the nuclear industry, the ‘Nuclear Graduates Scheme’ was set up. Hosted by the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (NDA), this is a highly selective, world class nuclear graduate programme, to attract the best of graduate talents to the sector with placement opportunities in the top companies.
Actions by Regulatory Authorities
The nuclear safety authorities have also taken actions, assuming responsibility for issues on national competence in the nuclear sector [Ref. Nuclear Competence Building], especially but not exclusively in those cases where direct government initiatives on E&T have been deficient. Such is the case of Sweden, where, during the difficult years, in co-operation with industry, the Swedish Nuclear Power Inspectorate set up the Swedish Centre for Nuclear Technology (SKC), to ensure that nuclear engineering programmes were not completely abandoned at universities. SKC ensures national coordination, provides base funding for education and research and coordinates joint research projects, aiming at creating strong and internationally recognised research groups within areas which are vital-for and unique-to nuclear technology. It promotes attractive educational programmes, which increase the attraction to enter nuclear technology among students. SKC funds are raised by a tax on utilities.
The Spanish Nuclear Regulatory Body (CSN) has dedicated funds to foster and enhance activities on R&D in nuclear safety and radiation protection and to support Master courses in Nuclear Science and Technology. CSN has also created and sponsored three chairs in two universities.
In Finland the regulatory authority seconds younger staff to other regulatory bodies as part of international training initiatives [Ref. Nuclear Competence Building, NEA 2004].
Educational Networks
.
As regards this recommendation, while [Ref. Nuclear Competence Building] only feeble indications of progress were reported up to 2004, in recent years a veritable spur of educational networks has occurred, at the national and international level, often benefiting from improved technological means such as distant learning. The establishment of such networks and bridges has generally been the result of concerted effort of all stakeholders: governments, through their support and even, in some instances, their drive; academic and research institutes, through the joint promotion and coordination of nuclear education and R&D programmes; and, not last, industry. Industry involvement in nuclear education programmes has occurred through financial aid, by allowing access of industry research facilities to students for exercise and training and by having industry professionals participating in the development and delivery of courses. This also facilitates the transfer of tacit knowledge [Ref. Trends in Nuclear Education, IAEA].
One example of joint efforts to maintain and further develop a high quality programme in nuclear engineering is the Belgian Nuclear Education Network (BNEN) founded with the sponsorship of the Belgian nuclear industries in 2001 by SCK•CEN and five Belgian universities, with a sixth university joining the programme in the academic year 2006-2007. The intent of the programme is to remodel nuclear education in Belgium, catalysing networks between academia, research centres and public utilities. BNEN has instituted the ‘Master after Master’ through the merging of different nuclear programmes into a single programme for holders of a Master degree in Engineering and the government subsidises colloquia to promote it. The course is highly modular and taught in English. The Belgian nuclear industries support the BNEN programme and every two years a stakeholder meeting is organised where representatives from industry, universities and SCK•CEN, convene and work towards the optimisation of the master programme. In addition, three Belgian institutes organise four-year master courses in nuclear technology, medical nuclear techniques and radiochemistry. In 2003 SCK•CEN, XIOS Hogeschool Limburg, Institut supérieur industriel de Bruxelles together with Institut national des radio-éléments joined efforts to start up a Radiation Protection Expert course that gives the qualification of ‘radiation expert’. Beside technical universities, SCK•CEN and the National Institute for Radioelements cooperated to the establishment of a comprehensive nuclear 120-hour programme taught in Dutch and in French and also including European and Belgian regulation and legislation.
In Finland the establishment of the Finnish Nuclear Education Network (FINNEN) has been driven by the government. FINNEN offers several courses at Lappeenranta University and Helsinki University of Technology, with nine lecturers taking part to the programmes and a capacity of 15 students at each institution in the year 2007-2008 [Ref. Nuclear Safety in a Situation of Fading Nuclear Experience, European Commission, May 2009]. In Finland summer training periods in industries are compulsory and students have been able to work with the industry, research institutes and nuclear authorities to prepare their theses.
Another relevant example is the UK Nuclear Technology Education Consortium (NTEC) created between universities and other institutions to provide postgraduate education. At the master level, British universities have preserved existing courses, and introduced new ones, as a result of discussions with the industry and in response to identified needs. At one university, a partnership with the regulatory body and a number of companies has preserved a longstanding nuclear course that would otherwise have closed due to withdrawal of government funding. In addition, raising the profile of research in the nuclear area through the formation of industry-university research alliances, has increased interest in nuclear subjects among undergraduates. The result has been a net increase in the number of students attending existing nuclear options and the introduction of new ones. Many other industry-university consortia have also been created, such as the Nuclear Academic Industry Liaison Seminars (NAILs).
In Italy, the CIRTEN (Consorzio Interuniversitario per la Ricerca Tecnologica Nucleare) founded by the ‘nuclear universities’ in 1994. In addition, the ‘Associazione Nazionale Impiantistica Industriale’ (ANIMP), which plays a role of coordination of industries and utilities involved in the nuclear programme, has set up a working group with universities on nuclear education with the goal to start two new masters in October 2010: one for young graduate engineers and the other for professionals and managers with substantial working experience but not in the nuclear field.
In Switzerland, industry supported the Chair in Nuclear Energy Systems, when the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich decided in 2004 to suppress the Chair in Nuclear Engineering. The Swiss Master of Science in Nuclear Engineering, established in 2008, represents an excellent example of collaboration. This initiative, essentially due to self-generated motivation at the academic level involves the Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI) as national research centre and Swissnuclear, the association of Swiss nuclear utilities. Nuclear industries are actively involved in the Swiss NE Master, also through the provision of lecturers in several courses as well as and industrial internships. In industry has also financed nearly 50% of the R&D needs of the PSI’s Nuclear Energy and Safety (NES) department. A part of the financial support is separately earmarked for PhD students and young scientists.
In Sweden the industry is involved both as sponsors and as contributors with teachers in the delivery of education programmes. Together with the regulatory body, industry contributes to the funding of the Swedish Nuclear Technology Centre in order to ensure that there is adequate financial provision to replace retiring professors [Ref. Nuclear Competence Building]. Although there are no longer research reactors in Swedish universities, students can receive their hands-on training thanks to collaborations with industries and international academic institutions running such facilities. The industrial full-scale reactor simulators are also used for student training. Geographical proximity can also be a catalyser in such situations, with positive repercussions in recruitment and hence student enrolment. All Swedish universities have bilateral collaborations with industries and, typically, the nuclear power plants support the geographically closest university.
In Germany various nuclear educational networks and associations have been established by the industry over the last decade (notably the Southwest German Nuclear R&E Alliance). Collaboration with educational institutions has been strengthened, in particular at PhD level and a new institute for nuclear engineering and fusion technology has recently been created. In particular, the Kompetenzverbund Strahlenforschung was established in 2007 to derive trends in job opportunities in the nuclear sector, to achieve enhanced cooperation between universities and to harmonise national R&D on reactor safety and waste disposal research. A number of universities have formed an alliance of competence in nuclear technology, which has fostered the enhancement of education by coupling with good research, notably in the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT). Scientists from the research centres give lectures in universities. Students are also given the opportunity of conducting internships and theses for diploma or doctoral research at facilities near to their homes.
In France, the industry is highly engaged with training as well as education programmes, funding Chairs in Schools and Universities. AREVA has even sponsored a professorship in Germany. In 2008 EDF allocated € 4M to set up the “Fondation Européenne pour les Energies de demain” in collaboration with the Institut de France to fund education and research in clean energies through financing high education institutions projects and grants to students. The capabilities and experience of the French nuclear industry are also made available in support of the development of international training capacities. In 2008, the French International Nuclear Agency (AFNI) was created within the national nuclear research centre (CEA) to develop government to government partnerships with countries willing to take advantage of French nuclear competence. More recently, during the International Conference on Access to Civil Nuclear Energy , the President of the French Republic announced the creation of an International Institute for Nuclear Energy (I2EN), to constitute a gateway to international applications of French nuclear science and technology education and to vocational training for foreign engineers. The I2EN will develop networks and partnerships worldwide, including through the establishment of a “Centre of Excellence for sustainable nuclear energy” (largely open to new comers) aimed at building a strong culture of safety and security and providing a “Think tank” on the main challenges associated with nuclear energy.
Networks can be a way to pool effort and resources and can play a key role in countries where the need for nuclear experts exists but is not sufficiently large to sustain individual nuclear educational programmes. In these cases amalgamating under subscribed courses is an effective way of preserving nuclear teaching [Ref. Nuclear Competence Building].
In Switzerland, a common degree: the Swiss Master of Science in Nuclear Engineering has been established in 2008 by the two Swiss Federal Institutes of Technology at Lausanne and at Zurich. The Master has registered good success, with some 15 to 20 national and international students attending each year. It represents a “quantum jump” for the country in terms of additional commitment towards education.
4.1.3.1.3 Organizations of nuclear education and training programs.
The general outlook of academic programmes in nuclear education seems to have considerably ameliorated, with some countries manifesting an upturn of the declining trend observed 10 years ago. Sometime stimulated by the prospect of new build, new and advanced nuclear education programmes are being launched, attracting healthier numbers of students, in an increasingly global context.
In Sweden, the nuclear education has now reached a very good state, with a healthy number of students and professors, markedly on the increase. Different education programmes are active in universities at various levels, with numerous academic activities just started or about to start, including the first dedicated programme in nuclear engineering at bachelor level just launched in the autumn of 2010 at Uppsala University. In the autumn 2009, the Chalmers Institute of Technology, in Gothenburg, has started a new nuclear engineering MSc, which will train specialists for the nearby nuclear power plants. Programmes and course contents adopted by different universities are varied, offering distinct specialisations which better satisfy the industry needs and other requirements that may arise within such a multifaceted field as nuclear power. The capacity for education and research is stronger than it has been in many decades, and, although during the coming ten years, 6000 new staff will have to be employed, equivalent in volume to the entire present industry population, it is expected that such demand will be satisfactorily fulfilled. In fact, if maintained, this positive trend could even lead, in a few years, to the formation of a numbers of nuclear engineers which may even slightly exceed current domestic needs, with the prospect of establishing a flow of Swedish professionals to Germany where future workforce shortages may be significant.
The nuclear education system in France is well established and very robust, with first-class comprehensive nuclear and nuclear-related engineering programmes presently provided in more than 30 engineering schools and universities, all over the country, some longstanding, others recently launched. These offer a growing supply capacity estimated, for the year 2009-2010, at approximately 1250 students. Some engineering schools and universities have created new, more specialised programmes, with 2 and 3 – year curricula in safety/security and nuclear engineering.
In Spain, over and above basic, more traditional nuclear subjects, some universities have set up new advanced courses, appealing to students and sought by the sector, such as transmutation, material science, advanced computer codes, nuclear fusion technology etc. Master courses in several universities have been accredited by the National Accreditation Agency (ANECA), which permits to invite professors from other countries to teach advanced courses. In this sense the nuclear education offered by the school of industrial engineers of the Polytechnical University of Madrid has been recently accredited by ABET for a period of five years.
The prospect of new build can stimulate teaching, as is being experienced in the United Kingdom, where the awareness of new opportunities has increased the interest of students. With the restart of a nuclear programme on the horizon, in Italy, new master courses have started: two in the Universities of Bologna (2008) and Genoa (2010), the latter partially founded by the EU. A new international master degree in Nuclear Safety and Security, is to be launched at the University of Pisa (in November 2010), with the collaborative effort of industry, research centres and institutions (e.g. CIRTEN, Ansaldo Nucleare, ITER Consult, etc.). In Finland, one university is currently modifying its curriculum in the light of new reactor build and another has recently separated nuclear power plant technology from power plant technology in order to raise its profile with students.
New Craft and Technical levels are just as important
Whilst satisfying the small but important niche demand for nuclear courses at the higher engineering level is fundamental, adequately addressing the large demand of craft and technical levels from the sector is just as important, in order to maintain and deploy nuclear programmes robustly anchored on strong safety principles as well as good science and engineering.
In this context, in the United Kingdom, universities are providing more nuclear undergraduate modules and working with technical colleges, sometimes franchising courses. In addition, with the Working Higher project, Cogent is supporting the development and roll-out of modular, work-based foundation degrees.
In 2005 the University of Tokyo has established the Professional School of Nuclear Engineering, which awards qualifications such as ‘Nuclear Reactor Supervisor’ and ‘Nuclear Fuel Handling Supervisor’ as well as the Professional Master Degree. A comprehensive curriculum is taught over one year and a total 16 students per year attend the school, mostly sent by nuclear organisations, such as utilities, nuclear facility manufacturers, as well as regulatory bodies.
‘Nuclearisation’ of non-nuclear professionals
Furthermore, courses are also being devised for the ‘nuclearisation’ of non-nuclear professionals. In Sweden a third-year specialisation in nuclear engineering will be added to an existing three-year bachelor-level mechanics engineering education programme to allow students from any technical college or university with mechanical or electrical engineering to complement their knowledge on nuclear technology. In 2009, Uppsala University has started a nuclear engineering specialisation programme which complements a general engineering programme in energy systems.
4.1.3.2 Needs and Strategies for Long Term Cooperation in Radiation Protection
4.1.3.2.1 Framework and Strategies
Radiation protection is a major challenge in the industrial applications of ionising radiation, both nuclear and non-nuclear, as well as in other areas such as the medical and research area. As is the case with all nuclear expertise, there is a trend of a decreasing number of experts in radiation protection due to various reasons. On the other hand, current activities in the nuclear domain are expanding: the nuclear industry faces a so-called "renaissance", high-tech medical examinations based on ionising radiation are increasingly used, and research and non-nuclear industry also make use of a vast number of applications of radioactivity.
Within this perspective, maintaining a high level of competency in radiation protection is crucial to ensure future safe use of ionizing radiation and the development of new technologies in a safe way. Moreover, the perceived growth in the different application fields requires a high-level of understanding of radiation protection in order to protect workers, the public and the environment of the potential risks. A sustainable Education and Training (E&T) infrastructure for radiation protection is an essential component to combat the decline in expertise and to ensure the availability of a high level of radiation protection knowledge which can meet the demands in the future.
In the field of Radiation Protection, an exchange of basic teaching programmes is necessary between EU and China. It is a very positive contribution to initiate those exchanges over the EURATOM and China 2010 collaboration, especially while radiation protection will provide fundamental knowledge into the Chinese nuclear education in radiation safety and radiation protection will be linked to reactor safety as well as nuclear waste management and geological disposal. The following objectives have been formulated:
- Compare the education and training programme between EU and in particular China in high level nuclear engineers in the field of radiation safety and protection including MSc/MEng, PhD, Postdoctoral Research Fellows through Tsinghua and CNNC research Institutions, and graduate schools.
- Keep regular contact with TU’s DEP&INET and CNNC Graduate School to exchange views on education and training programmes. In particularly, exchanges on radiation protection research programmes are initiated for PhD and staff exchanges with EU universities and research organizations such as SCKCEN and CEA/INSTN.
In this project, needs and strategies of long-term cooperation between EU and China in the area of radiation protection are defined.
Within Europe, the concepts of RPE (radiation protection expert) and RPO (radiation protection officer) are an important part within the legal RP framework. The recent developments regarding RPE and RPO, also subject of the ENETRAP-II 7FP, are exchanged and it is analysed if similar concepts are available at both Chinese and EU side. Based on an overview of available Master programmes at universities and research organisations, suggestions are provided for future collaboration programmes for exchange and common developments in radiation protection. From this, topics for pilot sessions are identified, with the aim to serve longstanding relationships between EU and Chinese education and training providers. A strategy for exchange of (Master and PhD) students and lecturers is developed, with an eye to a long-term implementation.
Since the application of ionising radiation is widely spread in different fields, it is of utmost importance to clearly mark the application field(s) that is covered in this project. One possibility would be to focus on the nuclear industry (parts of the nuclear fuel cycle). The identification of the area of interest has to be discussed and should be performed in the first phase of the project, in such a way that it meets the primary needs of the cooperation and that it is feasible within the time frame of the project.
In the framework of the EURATOM CIAE Cooperation, a strong interest was also expressed by the medical sector to cooperate and exchange information and expertise on radiation safety for medical applications of nuclear technologies. As this area is also addressed in the ENETRAP-II project, exchanges might be included, depending on the availability of resources provided by the third parties.
4.1.3.2.1 Current and Future Situation of Radiation Protection
International context
International Atomic Energy Agency
The International Atomic Energy Commission, an entity of the United Nations, published in 1996 an International Basic Safety Standard for Protection against Ionizing Radiation and for the Safety of Radiation Sources. This International Basic Safety Standardi (IAEA BSS) was jointly sponsored by FAO, IAEA, ILO, OECD/NEA, PAHO and the WHO, and is considered to contain the overall regulatory structure of radiation protection for all IAEA Member States. In the International Basic Safety Standard, special notice is given to the qualified expert, which needs to be identified and made available for providing advice on the observance of the (IAEA) Standards.
The qualified expert is defined according to the IAEA BSS as:
An individual who, by virtue of certification by appropriate boards or societies, professional licences or academic qualifications and experience, is duly recognized as having expertise in a relevant field of specialization, e.g. medical physics, radiation protection, occupational health, fire safety, quality assurance or any relevant engineering or safety specialty.
Responsibilities in radiation protection are also given to a radiation protection officer. This person is defined according to the IAEA Glossaryii as:
An individual technically competent in radiation protection matters relevant for a given type of practice who is designated by the registrant or licensee to oversee the application of the requirements of these Regulations.
The IAEA provides a lot of training material in radiation protection on it's website http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Training. Particular attention should be given to the IAEA Standard Syllabus of the Postgraduate Educational Course in Radiation Protection and the Safety of Radiation Sources (PGECiii course, published in 2002), a comprehensive training programme aimed at training young professionals at graduate level or the equivalent for initial training to acquire a sound basis in radiation protection and safety of radiation sources.
International Radiation Protection Association
The International Radiation Protection Association is a cooperation between all radiation protection societies throughout the world, and provides a medium for all those engaged in radiation protection activities. Within IRPA, a workgroup is focused on Education and Training. Next to the organisation of refresher courses with are provided at each IRPA congress, this workgroup also elaborated a definition on the Radiation Protection Expert which was adopted by the International Labour Organization (ILO).
The ILO established in 1957 the first International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO). ISCO is a tool for organizing jobs into a clearly defined set of groups according to the tasks and duties undertaken in the job. This classification is periodically revised and updated. In the last classification, ISCO-08, ILO has included a new Unit Group in which the RPE is given as an example of registered occupations: ISCO-08 Definitions.
In context with the ISCO-08 classification of the RPE the IRPA elaborated the following definition (approved by the Executive Council in August 2004):
An RPE is a person having education and/or experience equivalent to a graduate or masters degree from an accredited college or university in radiation protection, radiation safety, biology, chemistry, engineering, physics or a closely related physical or biological science; and who has acquired competence in radiation protection, by virtue of special studies, training and practical experience. Such special studies and training must have been sufficient in the above sciences to provide the understanding, ability and competency to:
– anticipate and recognize the interactions of radiation with matter and to understand the effects of radiation on people, animals and the environment;
– evaluate, on the basis of training and experience and with the aid of quantitative measurement techniques, the magnitude of radiological factors in terms of their ability to impair human health and well-being and damage to the environment;
– develop and implement, on the basis of training and experience, methods to prevent, eliminate, control, or reduce radiation exposure to workers, patients, the public and the environment.
In most countries the competence of radiation protection experts needs to be recognized by the competent authority in order for these professionals to be eligible to undertake certain defined radiation protection responsibilities. The process of recognition may involve formal certification, accreditation, registration, etc.
European Union
Although almost every country in the EU is an official Member State of the IAEA, they need to follow the European legislation in radiation protection. The regulatory framework and its implementation in Europe is explained in the following paragraphs.
Radiation protection in Europe is mainly based on the regulation regarding ionising radiation. The most important references are:
1. Council Directive 96/29/Euratomiv of 13 May 1996 laying down basic safety standards for the protection of the health of the workers and the general public against the dangers arising from ionising radiation. (EU BSS or European Basic Safety Standard)
2. Council Directive 97/43/Euratomv of 30 June 1997 on health protection of individuals against the dangers of ionizing radiation in relation to medical exposure (EU MED or European Medical Exposure directive).
Each EU Member State is obliged to transpose these (binding) directives into national legislation. Anno 2012, nearly all EU Member States have implemented their own national legislation in radiation protection, based on these 2 directives (amongst other EU directives). Non-EU Countries like Switzerland and Norway have adopted similar legislation. An official communication in the context of education and training in radiation protection is Communication 98/C 133/03vi, which describes the basic and additional training requirements for qualified experts. This is a reference document, which is not binding for EU Member States but which assists in transposing the European Council Directive into national law.
Although there is a close cooperation between the European Commission and the IAEA, these European directives slightly differ from the International Basic Safety Standard. They mainly adopt the general system and principles of the ICRP recommendations of 1990 (ICRP N°60vii). These directives have been transposed on a national level in each EU member state, providing the same framework of radiation protection in each EU country, but with different implementation in practice.
In 2007 a voluntary association was created which brings together 49 radiation protection Authorities from 31 European countries: HERCA (Heads of European Radiological Competent Authorities). This association is working around topics generally covered by provisions of the EURATOM Treaty. The programme of work of HERCA is based on common interest in significant regulatory issues.
Only the content and implementation of the EU BSS with respect to education and training in radiation protection will be discussed hereafter. For the general framework of radiation protection in Europe, we refer to the relevant documents (EU BSSiv, ICRPvii).
General requirements on education in radiation protection
Article 22 of the EU BSSiv (Information and training) requires each member state to arrange relevant training in the field of radiation protection to be given to exposed workers, apprentices and students.
Article 7 of the EU MEDv (training) requires member states to ensure that (medical) practitioners, workers2 and medical physics experts (MPE, see 2.1.3) have adequate theoretical and practical training for the purpose of radiological practices, as well as relevant competence in radiation protection.
According to the directive, member states are required to establish appropriate curricula and recognize the corresponding diplomas, certificates or formal qualifications. Member states are also required to ensure that continuing education and training after qualification is provided and, in the special case of the clinical use of new techniques, the organization of training related to these techniques and the relevant radiation protection requirements. In the same article (7) it is mentioned that member states are required to encourage the introduction of a course on radiation protection in the basic curriculum of medical and dental schools. In 2000, the European Commission published a guidance document (Radiation Protection 116)viii for the implementation of the articles of the Medical Exposure Directive mentioned above.
Qualified expert
The EU BSSiv defines a Qualified Experts (in radiation protection) as: Persons having the knowledge and training needed to carry out physical, technical or radiochemical tests enabling doses to be assessed, and to give advice in order to ensure effective protection of individuals and the correct operation of protective equipment, whose capacity to act as a qualified expert is recognized by the competent authorities. A qualified expert may be assigned the technical responsibility for the tasks of radiation protection of workers and members of the public.
The medical physics expert is mainly held responsible for the radiation protection of patients. According to article 6.3 (Procedures), a medical physics expert shall be involved and/or available in radiotherapeutic practices, (diagnostic and therapeutical) nuclear medicine practices and in diagnostic radiology. Tasks attributed to this expert are, amongst others, optimization of the medical exposure including patient dosimetry; quality assurance including quality control; and to give advice on matters relating to radiation protection concerning medical exposure.
Future of radiation protection legislation
Revision and recast of the EU regulation in radiation protection
The European Directives mentioned above are, amongst other Directives, currently under revision and recast with two main objectives: (1) a revision of the 96/29/Euratom directiveiv (BSS), and (2) a consolidation of the existing EU radiation protection legislation. Different EU legislation relevant to the radiation protection system are being consolidated:
- BSS 96/29/Euratomiv
- Medical Exposure 97/43/Euratomv
- Public Information 89/618/Euratomx
- Outside workers 90/641/Euratomxi
- Control of high-activity sealed sources and orphan sources 2003/122/Euratomxii
- Radon 90/143/Euratom (recommendation)xiii
At the time of the project, a draft of this consolidated EU regulation was available on the website of the European Commission (the last version xiv available from 30 May 2012). The final version has been adopted on December 5, 2013 and published in January 2014 by the European Commission. The Directive is not expected to be transposed in the Member States until 2014 / 2015, because of the complexity of the subject matter.The requirements for radiation protection education, training and information are provided in chapter IV, article 15 to 19.
From Qualified expert to RPE and RPO
The EU BSS 96/29 now describes different types of experts in radiation protection. The concept of the qualified expert has been replaced by the concept of a Radiation Protection Expert (RPE) and a Radiation Protection Officer (RPO), mainly due to the input of the results of the FP6 ENETRAP project and the establishment of the EUTERP network4 (see further), who contributed to the advice submitted to the European Commission and the Group of Experts according to art 31 of the EURATOM Treaty. Meanwhile, a new 3 year EC project has started in 2009 (FP7 ENETRAP II), which aims to develop European high-quality "reference standards" and good practices for education and training (E&T) in radiation protection (RP), specifically with respect to the RPE and the RPO. The introduction of a radiation protection training passport as a means to facilitate efficient and transparent European mutual recognition is another ultimate deliverable of this project.
The Radiation Protection Expert is defined in the text as: an individual having the knowledge, training and experience needed to give radiation protection advice in order to ensure effective protection of individuals, whose capacity to act is recognized by the competent authorities.
The Radiation Protection Officer is defined as: an individual technically competent in radiation protection matters relevant for a given type of practice who is designated by the undertaking to oversee the implementation of the radiation protection arrangements of the undertaking.
Article 84 of the currently available draft Directive describes the duties and competency of the radiation protection expert.
The radiation protection expert shall, on the basis of professional judgment, measurements and assessments, give competent advice to the undertaking on matters relating to occupational exposure and public exposure.
The advice of the radiation protection expert shall cover, but not be limited to, the following:
(a) plans for new installations and the acceptance into service of new or modified radiation sources in relation to any engineering controls, design features, safety features and warning devices relevant to radiation protection;
(b) the categorisation of controlled and supervised areas;
(c) the classification of workers;
(d) the content of workplace and individual monitoring programmes;
(e) the appropriate radiation monitoring instrumentation to be used;
(f) the appropriate methods of personal dosimetry;
(g) the optimisation and establishment of appropriate dose constraints,
(h) quality assurance;
(i) the environmental monitoring programme;
(j) radioactive waste disposal requirements;
(k) the arrangements for prevention of accidents and incidents;
(l) preparedness and response in emergency exposure situations;
(m) training and retraining programmes for exposed workers.
Where appropriate, the task of the radiation protection expert may be carried out by a group of specialists who together have the necessary expertise. Article 32 of the Directive describes the obliged consultations with the radiation protection expert:
Member States shall require the undertaking to consult a radiation protection expert on the examination and testing of protective devices and measuring instruments, in particular for:
(a) prior critical examination of plans for installations from the point of view of radiation protection;
(b) the acceptance into service of new or modified radiation sources from the point of view of radiation protection;
(c) regular checking of the effectiveness of protective devices and techniques;
(d) regular calibration of measuring instruments and regular checking that they are serviceable and correctly used.
Article 86 of the Directive describes the duties and competency of the radiation protection officer.
Member States shall decide in which practices the designation of a radiation protection officer is necessary to perform radiation protection tasks within an undertaking. Member States shall require undertakings to provide the radiation protection officers with the means necessary for them to carry out their duties. The radiation protection officer shall report directly to the undertaking.
Depending on the nature of the practice, the tasks of the radiation protection officer may include the following:
(a) ensuring that work with radiation is carried out in accordance with the requirements of any specified procedures or local rules;
(b) supervise implementation of the programme for workplace monitoring;
(c) maintaining adequate records of radioactive sources;
(d) carrying out periodic assessments of the condition of the relevant safety and warning systems;
(e) supervise implementation of the personal monitoring programme;
(f) supervise implementation of the health surveillance programme;
(g) providing new employees with an introduction to local rules and procedures;
(h) giving advice and comments on work plans;
(i) authorising work plans;
(j) providing reports to the local management;
(k) participating in the arrangements for prevention, preparedness and response for emergency exposure situations;
(l) liaising with the radiation protection expert.
The task of the radiation protection officer may be carried out by a radiation protection unit established within an undertaking.
Education and training of medical professionals
In 2011, a project called MEDRAPET6 started with the aim to improve the implementation of the Medical Exposure Directive provisions related to radiation protection education and training of medical professionals in the EU Member States. After the conduct of a EU-wide study on radiation protection training of medical professionals in the EU Member States, a European workshop was organised in April 2012, which will provide input for a European Guidance document on radiation protection training of medical professionals. This guidance document will be considered to be the update of the Radiation Protection document N° 116viii.
Medical physics expert involvement
Although the concept remains valid, the definition of the Medical Physics Expert (MPE) has slightly been adapted in the Directive EU BSS/96/29: an individual having the knowledge, training and experience to act or give advice on matters relating to radiation physics applied to medical exposure, whose competence to act is recognized by the competent authorities.
Article 85 of the Directive describes the duties and competence of the medical physics expert:
Within the health care environment, the medical physics expert shall, as appropriate, act or give specialist advice on matters relating to radiation physics as applied to medical exposure.
Depending on the medical radiological practice, the medical physics expert shall take responsibility for dosimetry, including physical measurements for evaluation of the dose delivered to the patient, give advice on medical radiological equipment, and contribute in particular to the following:
(a) optimisation of the radiation protection of patients and other individuals subjected to medical exposure, including the application and use of diagnostic reference levels;
(b) the definition and performance of quality assurance of the medical radiological equipment;
(c) the preparation of technical specifications for medical radiological equipment and installation design;
(d) the surveillance of the medical radiological installations with regard to radiation protection;
(e) the selection of equipment required to perform radiation protection measurements;
(f) the training of practitioners and other staff in relevant aspects of radiation protection.
Where appropriate, the task of the medical physics expert may be carried out by a medical physics service.
The current draft Directive describes in art. 57 (procedures) the involvement of the medical physics expert in medical radiological practices:
In medical radiological practices, a medical physics expert shall be appropriately involved, the level of involvement being commensurate with the radiological risk posed by the practice. In particular:
(a) in radiotherapeutic practices other than standardised therapeutic nuclear medicine practices, a medical physics expert shall be closely involved;
(b) in standardised therapeutical nuclear medicine practices as well as in radiodiagnostic and interventional radiology practices, a medical physics expert shall be involved;
(c) for other simple radiodiagnostic procedures, a medical physics expert shall be involved, as appropriate, for consultation and advice on matters relating to radiation protection concerning medical exposure.
Currently, a project of the European Commission (Medical Physics Projectxv) is running concerning the implementation of the provisions of the Medical Exposures Directive MEDv (97/43/Euratom) and the future Revised Recast Euratom Basic Safety Standards Directivexiv (to be adopted) relating to the Medical Physics Expert (MPE) and to facilitate the harmonisation of the role, education and training of the MPE among the member states of the European Union.
Summary
The education and training in radiation protection is mainly based on the European legislation, with a distinction to the medical exposure. This legislation is currently under revision. Due to the different implementation of the European legislation, many projects have been executed or are in progress to harmonise the framework of education and training in radiation protection.
Current E&T Framework in Radiation Protection in the European Union
As previously explained, the Education & Training framework in radiation protection in EU is focused on its regulatory requirements. Although in principle the framework is the same in Europe, the implementation in each EU member state is different. In 2002 a large survey initiated by the European Commission showed that the national education and training programmes for experts showed often large differences in content, duration, level, the introduction of practical work, etc. The results of this survey were published in 2003 in the document Radiation Protection 133ix, and served as a basis to start up the ENETRAP project.
Concerning education and training, the survey from EC RP 133 showed the following conclusions:
- In most cases, and both for EU Member States and Applicant Countries, a prior education on an academic level is needed for the training of the RPE, certainly for the medical and the nuclear sector.
- In the majority of the countries, training course is given at universities, but other training centres do occur. Training programmes address in most cases the topics mentioned in the basic Syllabus (of the EC Communication). If a distinction in experts is made according to the sector of work, only part of the topics might be addressed.
- Training centres need to be recognised by the authorities in many countries, but sometimes this is only necessary in certain sectors, such as the medical sector.
- Professional experience is a criterion for recognition in many countries, but not in all. The space of time varies considerably, from zero to several years and depending on the sector of work.
- In most of countries there is input, or feedback, from the users of ionising radiation (such as employers, unions, professional bodies) with regard to the needs and efficiency of the education and training program. This input, or feedback, is not always formalised.
E&T in Radiation Protection in China
According to the information obtained by Guogang Ren (UH), a common curriculum in education and training programmes in nuclear engineering, radiation safety and protection is shared between 5 to 10 Chinese Universities (Tsinghua, Shanghai Jiaotong, Xian Jiaotong and others). Tsinghua University is the leading university in the field and supported by China’s Ministry of Energy, Ministry of Education (MoE), Ministry of Science and Technology (MoST) and China National Nuclear Corporation. (CNNC).
A translation of the Curriculum of the MSc Postgraduate Student Radiation Protection Education of the Tsinghua University, Department of Engineering Physics and Institute of Nuclear and New Energy Technology has been obtained from Guogang Ren.
MSc Postgraduate Student Radiation Protection Education for Department of Engineering Physics and Institute of Nuclear and New Energy Technology, Tsinghua University - Nuclear Science and Technology 082700.
The following field and specialties are covered:
－Nuclear Science and Technology: Grade I Programme, Applied Science;
－Nuclear Energy Science and Engineering: Grade II Programme, designed for nuclear reactor physics, reactor engineering and safety, fission and plasma physics research direction;
-Nuclear Technology and Applications: Grade II Programme, designed for radiation technology and applications, nuclear electronics and nuclear detecting technology, accelerator physics and application research directions;
－Nuclear Fuel, Fuel Cycling and Materials: Grade II Programme, designed for nuclear materials, isotope separations, nuclear chemistry, chemical engineering directions;
-Radiation Protection and Environment: Grade II Programme, designed for Radiation measurement, radiation detection, radiation shielding, radiation biological interaction, radiation safety control, evaluation research directions;
－Medical Physics and Engineering (Grade II Programme, suitable for medical physics, biomedical engineering, radiation imaging, radiation cure and recovery and nuclear Medicine, etc.)
Module arrangements
1.Degree modules ( Not less than 24 credits)
1.1 Public/social modules (>5 credits)
Natural Philosophy - 2 credits
Socialism and modern world - 1 credit
English - 2 credits
1.2 Fundamental Theory Modules (not less than 4 credits)
Data analysis A - 4 credits
Applied possibility/opportunity process - 4 credits
Mathematics - 4 credits
1.3 Specialty modules (not less that 13 credits)
Radiation and environmental protection
(a) Group A (not less than 6 credits)
Environmental Earth Chemistry - 3 credits
Radiation Safety and measurement - 3 credits
Porous media contamination substance immigration dynamics - 2 credits
Solid waste reuse or recycle engineering - 2 credits
Solid waste control engineering - 2 credits
Environmental risk analysis - 2 credits
Monte-Carlo methodology application in nuclear engineering - 3 credits
Spectrum analysis - 2 credits
Introduction of nuclear reactors - 3 credits
Radiation quantity and measurement - 2 credits
Ionic radiation detection Science and technology - 3 credits
Energy and resource management - 3 credits
Radiation molecular biology - 2 credits
Environment and radiation - 2 credits
Physics for high level health - 3 credits
(b) Group B
Software engineering, technology and design - 3 credits
Mini-computer system connection technology - 3 credits
Environmental fluidic mechanics - 3 credits
Aerosol and Colloid mechanics - 2 credits
Air contamination and protection principles - 2 credits
Advanced water treatment engineering - 2 credits
Computer control theory and applications - 3 credits
Nuclear reactor engineering and safety - 3 credits
Applied nuclear technology - 3 credits
Radiation technology and environmental protection - 2 credits
Energy and environments - 2 credits
Advances in accelerators - 3 credits
Modern radiation, detection and measurement - 2 credits
Other modules or programme selection based on supervisors recommendations
(4) Projects / Presentations seminar activities ( no less than 2 credits )
Literature survey and project selection & decision making - 1 credit
Attending seminars and research activities and exchange - 1 credits
Selective modules (Optional)
In order to obtain the general knowledge, students can select following modules optionally based on the advices from supervisors:
(1) Selecting other Grade I modules;
(2) Human and culture, social science, management type modules.
1) Self studies of programs or modules
2) Supplementary for those students coming from a 1st degrees degree which is a non-nuclear
Requirement for publications (Journal papers and research achievements during MSc studies)
All MSc students are asked to publish at least 1 paper in their specialty journal relevant to his or her studies. Student supervisor is required to produce a verification proof on the journal’s academic level and sign on the paper. All this will need to be approved by the sub-radiation protection committee.
The specification referring to “MSc student study degree requirement on publications”.
MSc Degree Thesis requirement
1) MSc degree thesis is the best reflections of student learning outcome university teaching outcome and，the degree thesis must be accomplished by student themselves under the guidance of university supervisors.
2) Every MSc degree thesis is a complete systematic academic document/paper/article towards assigned research / investigation target(s) with renewed research concepts or ideas. Therefore, the degree thesis has to provide new data and new conclusions showing student’s knowledge level on the learned academic fields by applying learned knowledge on to the research subjects. The thesis will give demonstration that the students have mustered a solid base of fundamental theory and specialized knowledge that bestowed students work capability independently on the studied field on scientific research or on assigned special technical works.
3) The period of research (from starting the project to finishing or hand-in the MSc thesis) generally is over one year. Meanwhile, according to “MSc recommendations on improving student study and training efficiency” (Tsinghua Research student act [2004] 6 Edition), MSc students should be allowed to enter into their research as early as possible within their studying period of 2 years.
4.1.3.3 Needs and Strategies for Long Term Cooperation in Radioactive Waste Management and Disposal
4.1.3.3.1 Framework and Strategies
One of the biggest obstacles facing the nuclear industry is what to do with the nuclear waste generated in the form of spent fuel discharged from reactors or in the form of high-level waste originating from the treatment of the spent fuel. Although scientific community recommends the geological disposal as the preferred solution for the long term isolation of radioactive waste, such facilities do not exist yet. Knowing that building and operating a disposal facility takes several decades, maintaining human resources with high scientific quality and improving skills and knowledge appear as a considerable challenge at national and international level.
Obviously, ensuring short term and long term availability of necessary expertise and competences in radioactive waste disposal is a common interest of both China and European Union member states. Thereby, developing practical ways to cooperate in this issue notably through the exchange of teachers, trainers, students and courses would be beneficial for significantly enhance the both side capacity.
As a first step towards this cooperation the settlement of a strategy is required for identification and prioritization of needs, specification of long-term objectives and optimization in the use of the shared resources. The process must start by completing the mutual awareness in the current situation of education and training in geological disposal of radioactive waste and future planned programmes in this field through exchange of information between EU and Chinese partners.
The inventory of existing educational and training opportunities available in each side (e.g. Master courses, PhD subjects, professional training courses) and the methodology used for the evaluation and validation of the learning outcomes would be the second steps of this cooperation. In this frame the European partners have already performed advanced works within the FP7 PETRUS II project which is dedicated to the continuation, renewal and improvement of the professional skills in the field of radioactive waste disposal. This project aims at building suitable frameworks for implementing and delivering sustainable education and training programmes by mobilizing resources from a strong partnership between European waste management agencies, academia and private training providers.
Finally, based on the results of the two previous works, the EU and Chinese teams have to build together a rational cooperation programme for the development of human resources and knowledge through implementation of a common framework for education and training, joint agreements and exchange in policy issues. It is important to notice that the settlement of this framework must fundamentally lean on the comparability of the education and training programmes rather than harmonization or standardization. Thereby the bottom up approach must be the synergetic process that governs the cooperation initiatives at the both sides.
The provision of support not only from the academia but from all stakeholders (e.g. research centers, industry, regulator,…) and the establishment of a strong coordination at both Chinese and EU sides assuring continuous exchange of information are central to the success of this endeavor. Besides, the organization of at least three technical meetings as well as the attendance of Chinese colleagues as observers in the PETRUS meetings is highly desirable.
The professorship for "Technology and Management for the Decommissioning of Nuclear Facilities" at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) focuses on the development of new practical related decommissioning technologies and automation techniques, tools and machines for the use in nuclear facilities.
In this regard techniques for the decontamination of surfaces, the separation of steel and reinforced concrete by means of remote-controlled appliances as well as the separation of austenitic materials under water are elaborated for example.
Furthermore a research project regarding techniques for the fully automatic decontamination of the inside of pipes is under development. The decontamination will be processed without discharge of harmful substances or chips into the pipes.
The research centrally focuses on the minimization of nuclear radiation which the personnel working in power plants is exposed to. In the course of another research project different ways will be analyzed soon that allow to store radioactive waste as long as necessary until it can be released as uncontaminated material. In this regard, appropriate containments and buildings are researched for different concepts that ensure the safe entombment of radioactive waste. There is no adequate tertiary education available worldwide, which covers the entire complex of problems dealing with decommissioning and final disposal by suitable processes and methods of management. However, high demands will accrue regarding the decommissioning of nuclear facilities within the following years. Thus, a sufficient number of excellently skilled engineers for decommissioning will be compulsory, not only for the economy but also for the protection of the environment in particular. In order to meet the growing demand engineers are to be trained well-directed to the mentioned set of problems, in a major field of study, at the KIT.
In this regard the following topics are scheduled
- Processes for decontamination and disassembling
- Workshop dealing with decontamination and disassembling
- Field reports about current decommissioning activities at nuclear facilities
- On-site project seminars
- Development of new technologies for decommissioning
Through the existing know-how of our department and its associated contacts we will conduct a pan-European appraisal of all continuing education available in the field of “WASTE MANAGEMENT AND DISPOSAL”, including information about relevant educational requirements and arising expenses as well as information about the infrastructure and equipment of the particular school, university or program. The appraisal will cover all levels ranging from engineer to bachelor and master. Besides that not only public institutions but also private institutions will be considered. Furthermore it will be scrutinized which dissertations in the field of “WASTE MANAGEMENT AND DISPOSAL” are already available, in order to offer topics for dissertations that concentrate on the uncovered issues and that will provide a benefit on either side, the Chinese as well as the European.
4.1.3.3.2 Education in Radioactive Waste Management and Disposal in the European Union.
Education and Training (E&T) in Geological Disposal has become a focal point in the waste management community in the beginning of this century. Several initiatives were started to strengthen both the national and international opportunities for Education and Training. Such initiatives include: the IAEA URF network of excellence “Training in and demonstration of waste disposal technologies in underground research facilities”; the foundation of the ITC School association in 2003; the study made in the CETRAD project funded by the FP6 of the European Commission, during 2004-2005 on available resources and needs in E&T in geological disposal and the formulation of the PETRUS Project for planning a modular curriculum in geological disposal.
The CETRAD project findings were that there are training needs and also offering in training available in Europe, but this offering is very fractured consisting of small individual training courses with a limited duration and often in national languages. Majority of the universities provide the topic only as a part of a course.
Practical works on E&T in radioactive waste disposal started with the launch of the PETRUS initiative. The project is based on the fact that assembling the critical mass in terms of students, teachers and facilities for launching academic educational programme on radioactive waste disposal is beyond the capability of any European individual university. Therefore, European universities must rely on collaborative effort to meet the challenge. Although Inter-university collaboration is the first key action for supplying the requirement for sound curricula, specific difficulties arise however when considering Master’s level programmes on radioactive waste disposal. Indeed, initiative in this field covers several disciplines; thereby building a joint degree programme becomes highly complex in terms of content and implementation. Coordination is especially challenging when compatibility criteria between different programmes that belong to different disciplines has to be established. In terms of organisation, a joint degree programme in this field cannot be supported by any collaborative structure since the existence of distinct boundaries between disciplines establishes distinct institutional frameworks for each speciality, avoiding shared responsibility on quality and content of the programmes between institutions. Indeed, higher education systems in European countries are very diverse, and even within each country incompatibility is not to be excluded. In this frame, building an educational programme in radioactive waste disposal that can be mutually recognised is more a matter of complementarity rather than standardization of curricula, diploma or institutions’ practices. The model that is most desired and considered most feasible is that which does not require all institutions to conform to a particular model. The general consensus is to build a reference structure that can be fitted into existing systems without jeopardising institutions’ diversity and identity. The key issues in building educational programme in radioactive waste disposal as a result of such a European harmonisation are generally perceived as follows:
1. Students in different locations must receive the same quality of education regardless of higher education institutions
2. Graduates from one country must have the possibility and capability to be recruited in other countries
3. Close collaboration at European level between universities and large involvement of future employers are needed in creating and developing the adequate educational programme.
4. The educational programme must fulfil Bologna process requirements.
The implementation of the harmonisation idea is not without challenges. Steps should be taken in order to increase student readiness. Barriers to language and communication must be overcome and there should be serious efforts to reduce constraints that are very “national” in nature. In view of the vast diversity in disciplines but also differences in the institutions’ structure, and the relatively small number of students that will be concerned by the programme, the creation of a single curriculum fitting all aspects of the radioactive waste disposal is insurmountable. Thereby, the PETRUS project found that the most feasible solution is to create a common set of courses that could be integrated to the existent curricula in different disciplines in geo-science. The main objectives of these courses should be to provide students with an extensive range of skills across the disciplines. The goal is not to teach exhaustively all concepts to all students, but to provide them with a necessary foundation where they can teach themselves what is needed during their professional life or their future academic research in this expending multidisciplinary area.
4.1.3.3.3 The PETRUS solution
Taking into account the requirement of the most national accreditation systems, the Bologna process and also the ENEN recommendations, the objective of the PETRUS has been the creation of a Master’s programme representing at least 60 ECTS. To reach this goal, PETRUS leans at first on the existing Master’s programmes in different geo-science disciplines. Indeed, even if these programmes are not explicitly dedicated to the nuclear issues, they encompass the main courses that bring the most fundamental scientific and technical knowledge needed in the field of geological disposal. For instance, the mechanisms of creation of the damaged zone during the excavation of a drift (EDZ) are generally a part of the “drilling course” taught in Mining Engineering at the Master’s level. Regarding the radioactive waste disposal, investigating the EDZ is of primary importance for the concept of the disposal since it may provide enhanced permeability pathways for radionuclide migration. The selected standard courses are completed by specific “Common Courses” in radioactive waste disposal. The particularity of these courses is that they can be followed by all of the students whatever be their initial disciplinary background. Figure 2 shows the schematic concept of the programme. Therefore, the first step in building the programme consists in selecting standard courses taught in different disciplines, which can be identified as having a direct link with the geological disposal. At least 30 ECTS will be selected in each existing Master’s programme. To achieve this aim, the partners audit themselves and determine the courses available in different existing Master’s programmes in different allied disciplines that can contribute to the expected content of the educational programme. The second phase corresponds to the creation of "common courses" where specific topics related to the geological disposal are introduced. The idea is to share the best competencies by pooling and mobilising necessary resources available in universities, research institutions nuclear waste management agencies and nuclear industries. These common courses (i.e. same courses shared by all the partner institutions) will represent at least 10 ECTS and must encompass 3 kinds of lectures:
(i) General lectures for giving a broad perspective of the different European approaches in the field of radioactive waste disposal.
(ii) Advanced lectures basically aiming at deepening and enlarging students’ scientific knowledge notably on the methodology and mathematical tools used in the safety assessment practices in radioactive waste disposal.
(iii) Technical lectures for familiarizing students with the practical and operational aspects.
Since these courses are common to all the participating institutions, an integrated teaching platform is needed to ensure that students will receive the same quality of education at the same time. The “face to face remote teaching” will be used to achieve this goal. This methodology introduces a form of virtual mobility, increasing the opportunities for nonmobile students to benefit from teaching delivered at a distance so that physical mobility is no longer the only way of ensuring that students could participate in classes and lectures given by academics in other countries.
A Master thesis or a final dissertation on geological disposal subjects representing at least 20 ECTS will complete the programme. The main advantage of the proposed solution is that the adjustment problems particularly with respect to instructional practices, curriculum incomparability, and cultural diversity are considerably mitigated. Indeed, recognition problems can be rooted in the fact that “foreign” courses may not be quality-checked by the “home” university. As it was stated by the EUA “the absence of trans-national quality assurance procedures lets persist some doubt about the comparability of the content, study time and admission requirements of the “foreign” programmes or even about the proficiency of the staff involved in the provision of the courses”. Therefore, for the same qualification title the profile and level of the qualification can be perceived differently from one country to another. The proposed solution avoids this kind of problems since it leans on the structure of the “home” Master’s programme in each institution. In other words, all the components of the degree belong to the national system and then meet the appropriate national quality standards. Thereby, no trans-national rules and complex procedures are needed; mutual trust and confidence in the responsible application of the local quality procedures is enough to establish cooperation between institutions.
The part of the programme that needs strong understanding between the partners and joint control is the “common courses”. This deals with a set of “new” courses that are jointly developed by the PETRUS partners. As these courses are common to all participating institutions, the main constraint is that they must be ranked at the same level of accreditation; in other words each university has to award each component with the same number of ECTS by applying its own quality procedure. However, overcoming this constraint is not too hard since the partner institutions have to work out these new courses collectively and then the agreement on the learning objectives, workload and core content must be found beforehand and not a posteriori. The proposed solution allows also compatibility with both Bologna process and ENEN recommendations. The total of 60 ECTS is reached by adding the corresponding credit numbers of the three parts of the programme. With regard to the ENEN requirement for completing at least 20 ECTS abroad, a sound solution can be found through the third part of the programme that corresponds to the presentation of a Master thesis after a training period. PETRUS students will be incited to complete this training period abroad either in a university laboratory or in a workplace. Academic and non-academic partners offer research work subjects that are dispatched among students in order to favour their mobility. Embedding the common courses into the existing Master ptogrammes enlarges students’ job options and avoids the danger of graduates’ inflation beyond the ability of the radioactive waste job-market to absorb them. Of course, the size, structure and content of the common courses are flexible and can be modified to be fitted to the real demand. This adjustment is highly facilitated by the involvement of both academic and non- academic partners in the definition of the programme. Finally the PETRUS solution allows launching a harmonised educational programme in radioactive waste disposal at the European level by sharing the best human resources and pedagogic materials available in partner institutions but without jeopardising their internal rules or their national commitments.
4.1.3.3.4 Overview of Education and Research in China.
In China a quarter of an age group has already access to higher education and the objective is to reach 45% by 2020. The number of Chinese students currently represents over 20% of all students in the world. Massification in higher education in China was decided in the late eighties. It constituted a historic turning point in a country in which the selection of elites was made through highly formatted competition and consolidated by a university organization based on USSR model. The reform was also accompanied by an increase in the duration of studies, compatible with the European countries. More than 10 million students are now enrolled in long four years bachelor’s degree (benke) while the proportion of those enrolled in short degree (zhuanke) decreases. The number of diplomas issued in “benke” is around two million, but there are only four hundred thousand students admitted in Master’s degree among them only sixty thousands are allowed to continue in PhD. This rapid development has led to difficulties in the ability of the higher education system to provide teachers and researchers needed to educate these new students.
A second important factor is the influence of the educated diaspora and in particular the North American diaspora that began to play important role at the state level, pointing out the need for high level research at university while the old Soviet model set aside this role exclusively to the Academy of Sciences. China has set up in the mid-eighties a major reform of its higher education system by delegating several decisional powers to the institutions themselves. This jeopardized massively organizational and budgetary constraints in universities used to working in the frame of Soviet centralism way. It was then mandatory to diversify institutions funding and increase their budgets to avoid a race to the bottom. This movement has found its application in the middle of 90s and in 1998 the Law on Higher Education stipulated that all universities should get the status of a legal person on the day of their accreditation which gave them considerable autonomy, although the weight of political control by the party remained significant. The authority of the Communist Party is still very strong, especially in the appointment of universities’ presidents, but in more than hundred universities decisions were decentralized at the local or regional level. The external control tends to fade gradually and focus on managerial aspects leaving more room for academic bodies with regard to the specific activities of teaching and research as well as proposals for recruitment and promotion. The universities were encouraged to expand activities and contract research projects with the business community, social organizations and other private sectors.
At the same time the number of students increased very sharply. In 1995 Chinese families were invited to participate to the education costs of their children. The amount of tuition is now set by the provincial governments, the average cost ranging around 450 euros today, but can reach up to 5,000 euros, according to the French Embassy. However, the Chinese government's 2020 plan for higher education and research advocates for equality for all in the access to education but doesn’t explain how the contradiction with the establishment of large tuition fees at the expense of families can be solved.
Despite mergers of institutions intended to give new universities additional flexibility, the number of universities has increased. There are currently more than two thousand seven hundred institutions of higher education with nearly two thousand public universities, and hundreds of private schools status. To maintain a solid core of academic activities two programmes called programme 985 and program 211 were launched in 1995 followed by an increase in academic scientific publications vastly superior to changes in general publications of the country. This phenomenon is certainly not exclusive to China and other countries like Spain, Australia or France that have raised their university’s research have seen improvement in terms of number of publications however, the ratio is much greater in China and somehow in Brazil than in most of the other countries, bringing about the efficiency of the investment.
Universities’ ranking whether domestic or international are carefully scrutinized in China. For Chinese government this serves as a main indicator for universities effective governance. The changing role of Chinese universities in the Shanghaï2 ranking valid somehow this strategy. In 2003 six of them were classified in the first four hundred universities in the world, they are now twelve.
The low share of state resources devoted to higher education (in 2007 China spent 3.32% of its GDP on education) is no longer enough to support this rapid development. Despite being in continuous rise in absolute terms, since the mid-90s the contribution of the state or provincial governments to the universities’ budget has been declining steadily to reach currently less than 40%. The difference was offset by tuition, by income generated by the universities themselves called to establish private subsidiaries, and by research contracts and provision of various services to public agencies and private firms. Today, families contribute more than a third to university funding. The industrial sector contributes only marginally.
The massification has on the other hand led to put under question the entrance examination to the university (gaokao) which is less and less seen as sesame to find a social position. Only a third of the universities are authorized to issue “benke” (4 years diploma), and only a hundred institutions, selected by the 211 and 985 programs, are authorized to issue a doctorate. In addition, because of the diversification, quality of schools became uneven. Families who can afford the costs and have not found a place in the top-rated institutions prefer to send their children to study abroad rather than at universities of mediocre level. Thus, at present more than five hundred thousand Chinese are studying abroad. Their admission will be made to extremely diverse procedures. The Anglo-Saxon universities, in particular, do not require success in “gaokao” because they have their own selection systems. For the Chinese candidates reasonable choices is often linked with the foreign university ranking. The selection of students for Chinese universities refers mainly to local rankings but also take into account international rankings basically based on research activities (ie. the Shanghai ranking but also Taïwan4 and SCImago5).
Half of Chinese students in France are registered in Bachelor’s degree. Germany accepts Chinese students only for Master’s degree and higher while the UK has a market approach since like Canada fees paid by foreign students are much higher than those paid by nationals. Language seems to not be an important problem for Chinese students in scientific PhD as English is widely spoken in the laboratory but it is still important for lower degrees. Another important factor in the evolution of Chinese university system was the rise of the North American diaspora in the Chinese system of research. This diaspora has gradually resumed contact with the mother country in the late 80s and it is not uncommon today to meet Chinese high level researchers with dual positions at an American university and a Chinese laboratory in Beijing or Shanghai. The return to China of very large number of researchers trained in the United States or in Western Europe shows clearly that the Chinese academic plan is successful and become the dominant pattern. The shift of research activities from the Academy of Sciences to Chinese universities is obvious as it is the evolution chart of Chinese universities scientific publications compared to the other countries.
Traditionally cooperation with China passed through International Research Group (GDRI) or international laboratories where various western research organizations were almost exclusive partners of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. But the recent development of the International Laboratory Associates (LIA) in which universities have a more pronounced role is likely the signal of a transfer of responsibility from Chinese Research Academy of Sciences to universities and should be instrumental in the future for inter-university cooperation. Today, the need for strengthening research cooperation in fundamental sciences on a more balanced basis and especially its extension to disciplines related to nuclear power is obvious. The number of common scientific papers produced with USA is three times more than with European Countries. The 2007-2013 Strategic Report of the European Union for China underlines that the majority of actions undertaken up to now have produced only unilateral benefit. The report stresses the need to promote considerations of mutual benefit in future and promotes increase of coordination between member states that are mainly prioritized bilateral relationship in the past. In this new context, academic cooperation needs to be rethought at European level and new initiatives should emerge. Many European programs towards China should be better utilized and valued not only in the benefit of the Chinese partners but also with tangible added value for Europeans.
4.1.3.3.5 Higher Education in China
The general higher education comprises both colleges of general education and technical and vocational colleges providing training for adults. These latter are however limited to 2 or 3 years study degrees. The admission from a cycle to the next is done in principle on the basis of competition. The school year is divided into two semesters; it includes from 38 to 40 weeks of classes by level and 13 to 10 weeks of vacation and holidays. The Chinese university system has undergone profound changes since the early 80s. It is currently characterized by a high degree of decentralization; most universities are managed and funded by local authorities. Only 10% of schools still report directly to the central ministries such as the Ministry of Education. Private education is also experiencing strong growth. It follows very significant differences in teaching capacity and quality of equipment depending on the region and the status of the university. China's education policy is focused mainly on research and internationalization.
For Chinese students, the university entrance exam, the Gaokao, is held every year in the final year of secondary study. According to their results students can have access to a particular level of institutions.
There are generally three cycles of study:
The first cycle covers:
i) short professional studies in two years (dazhuan)
ii) general and vocational studies in three years (dazhuan) and
iii) general studies in four years (Benke) .
The second cycle corresponds to the master’s degree and comprises three years studies after Benke (Shuoshi). Access is through competitive exams.
The third cycle, that is to say the doctorate (Boshi) is also accessible only through competition after the master’s degree and encompasses at least three years of study. A very small number of students are admitted and the delivery of degree is reserved to the most prestigious establishments.
4.1.3.3.6 Radioactive Waste Management in China
As early as 1985, China has chosen the deep geological disposal as the main direction to address the high level radioactive waste issue. By the end of 2010, 13 reactor units were in operation in China with a total capacity of over 10 GW, discharging a total of about 300 tHM of spent fuel annually. In 2009, the National Energy Board readjusted the 2020 target to 70GW of installed capacity and the total amount of spent fuel generated to 138,000 tHM. China has also chosen the reprocessing track and solidification of waste in vitrified glass in order to minimise the quantity of ultimate high level radioactive waste (HLW) waste to dispose.
Chinese activities on nuclear facilities decommissioning start at the end of 1980’s. At present, decommissioning of some uranium mining and milling facilities and nuclear application facilities have been finished and decommissioning of some research reactors and nuclear fuel cycle facilities is being planned or undergone. The decommissioning of some laboratories and testing installations have been finished, such as radiochemical laboratory in Dalian Institute of Applied technology under China National Nuclear Corporation, nuclear chemical engineering laboratory at Tianjin University, etc, and the wastes generated have been removed in interim storage facilities. Other installations like micro neutron source reactor at Shanghai Institute of Measurement and Testing Technology, and heavy water research reactor in China Institute of Atomic Energy, is preparing for decommissioning. Radioactive waste management facilities in China include waste treatment, on-site storage, provincial storage and disposal. Each NPP has on-site storage facility. There are some treatment facilities of incineration, solidification, and compaction. The provincial storage facilities are designed for interim storage of radioactive wastes arising from nuclear applications. Currently, there are 25 such facilities in China. Two near-surface disposals for low and intermediate-level radioactive waste are already built up, one located near the Daya Bay nuclear power plant in Beilong with a capacity of 80,000m3, another located in the North-West in Lanzhou but not yet operational. A 3-step plan has been designed to implement the HLW disposal program. The first step, from 2006 to 2020 is devoted to the basic study and disposal site selection including the construction of an underground laboratory.
From 2020 to 2040 specific in situ R&D, design and feasibility studies in underground laboratory are expected constituting the second phase of the plan. Finally the third step deals with the construction of the repository so as the high-level radioactive waste should be disposed from 2050. From the organisational point of view this plan seems rather complicated. The project is placed under conjoint authority of the Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP) and National Nuclear Safety Administration (NNSA). China Atomic Energy Agency (CAEA) is in charge of the project control and financial management. China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC) deals with implementation. Four CNNC subsidiaries act as key players: Beijing Research Institute of Uranium Geology (BRIUG) for site investigation and evaluation, China Institute of Atomic Energy (CIAE) for radionuclide migration studies and China Institute for Radiation Protection (CIRP) for safety assessment. Besides, China Nuclear Power Engineering Company (CNPE) and Chinese Academy of Sciences plus several universities are officially involved in the engineering and research aspects. Regarding potential disposal site, preliminary study showed that Beishan in Gansu Province situated in the Gobi desert, has integral crust structure, stable geological conditions and favourable hydrological conditions that constitute promising proprieties for HLW disposal repository. The topography of the area is characterized by flatter Gobi and small hills with elevations ranging between 1 400 and 2 000 m above the sea level. The crust in the area is a block structure, with the crust thickness of 47 to 50 km. The sub-surface granite having good integrity can be considered as the potential host rock.
4.1.3.3.7 Barriers in cooperation with China
Activities at European level focus mainly on cooperation in traditional academic education. Indeed, high level vocational education is nearly inexistent in China. Despite of government declarations this sector is marked by low investment; inadequate quality of teachers; lack of relationship with the workplace; and low levels of pedagogical considerations. Although number of Memorandums of Understanding set the policy framework for the scientific cooperation, the trust issue continues to rumble through China-EU relations, reflecting a “vicious cycle” (Jian 2009), in which a lack of mutual trust stands out as the most obvious obstacle to the partnership. European universities’ distrust has grown in recent years. Indeed, several tens of Chinese students enrolled in European research laboratories have been accused of espionages not to mention the recurrent problems of plagiarism and illicit copying of the layout-designs. This is clearly shown by Pew Global Attitudes Survey (PGAS) that measures the percentage of China’s “favourability” trend in different European countries. Other points are more linked with the structure and the organization of the studies. While in China, curricula remain strongly focused on subject-specific knowledge, in Europe, most countries are undergone reforms which had for main goal to emphasis the role of competence development in curricula as opposed to the mere accumulation of subject-specific knowledge. European efforts are directed towards competences that graduates are expected to have developed upon completion. These competences also increasingly integrate transversal and soft skills which are rather neglected in Chinese higher education. Similarly, the assessment methods in China are largely focused on evaluating students’ knowledge using predominantly written examination format. In Europe, oral examinations but also group assignments and project work are a common practice in many higher education institutions.Beyond the curriculum, the type of teaching is another difference that must be mentioned. The traditional lecturing style remains the predominant teaching mode in China. In Europe, there is a growing awareness that this mode of teaching, even if it remains prevalent, needs to be supplemented with other forms of learning activities such as practical workshops, discussion sessions, case-study, group assignments, mentoring etc. The idea is to favor more constructivist approach of knowledge development whereby learners generate knowledge through interaction and according to experience and concepts that they have already mastered instead to passing teachers’ knowledge to students who should reproduce it. In line with these differences in basic principles, teaching staff in China sometimes consider that the European approach to learning is inefficient as students spend time discovering that what the teacher said was true. This partly explains why Chinese students have very well developed memorization strategies and rapidly work out solutions to problems they have encountered in the past by reproducing the learnt pattern, while European students have a stronger capacity to react to unknown solutions but are less good at knowing many things by heart. Several recent surveys show that modification of teaching behaviour is not always welcomed by the Chinese teaching staff nor by the students who, used to the traditional lecturing-examination routine, prefer to follow the pattern that they are familiar with.
The cooperation is also impeded by the complex structure of the decision making in China and the number of actors involving in. The chart below shows different strata in the organization of the Chinese R&D system. The main difficulties arise from the presence of both horizontal and vertical parallel independent institutions in this scheme which complicate the effective application of any agreements. Although EU and China have over 50 sectorial working groups, many agreements and joint initiatives have not yet been able to guarantee real partnership and concrete cooperation has remained at a low level.
Finally, due to the large student base, huge contrast exists in teaching practice between Europe and China. Class discussion and project group teaching model seem to be not suitable for engineering education in China. Despite of these barriers, several cooperation programmes on E&T in nuclear field have been launched in recent years; most of them are related to the nuclear engineering. The agreements however are not concluded at the European level but concern basically bilateral arrangements between Chinese government and consortia of national universities supported by domestic industries.
4.1.3.3.8 Proposal for E&T Cooperation in Radioactive Waste Management and Disposal
When considering how to develop sustainable and concrete value in radioactive waste management and disposal E&T cooperation with China it appears that customized approach focusing on strategically important thematic areas with user and technology-oriented perspective is needed. Indeed, there is a need to identify areas where interests between EU and China are mutual and where they can be aligned to produce complementary expertise and capabilities leveraged. It is worth pointing out that both parties have a solid experience in research activities. For instance the Beijing Research Institute of Uranium Geology (BRIUG) founded in 1959, involves in performing on-site geological surveys identifying appropriate locations for uranium mines and nuclear waste storage, as well as conducting research in analytical laboratories. The figure below shows the organisation of the research activities in China. On the other hand both parties have also teaching capacities in this field even if the necessary resources are not concentrated and offering is fractured consisting of individual training courses with a limited duration.
Considering the barriers mentioned above, cooperation would be more cost-efficient and time-efficient if based on the already existing structures and agreements that can give the right pattern for building new and long-term basis academic relations. On The other hand investment in cooperation would be less risky if E&T activities are part of larger academic consortium. An example of such initiative can be found through PANACEA Erasmus Mundus Action 2 project funded by the European Commission. This project aims the setup of academic and staff mobility between universities from Asia including China with European universities. All the study levels are foreseen in the frame of this project (Undergraduate, Master, Doctorate, Post-doc and Staff). The consortium is composed of 10 European universities and 10 Asian universities. All partner universities of the consortium offer study programmes and training in different fields linked with research laboratories recognized in these fields. PANACEA programme began on July the 15th 2012 is planned for 48 months.
Other examples in the specific area of nuclear science can be found through bilateral cooperation agreements notably with French institutions. The Nuclear Engineering and Technology program was established in April, 2005. The First Nuclear Engineering and Technology class, 28 students, and the first “Nuclear Power Talents Order (senior)” class opened in September, 2005, and the Thermal Energy master program (nuclear power oriented) started at the same time. The School of Nuclear Science and Engineering has already educated 120 nuclear engineering graduates. The Sino-French Institute of Nuclear Engineering and Technology (IFCEN) was created in 2010 in Zhuhai, as a partnership between the Sun Yat Sen University for the Chinese side, and a consortium of several French institutions including the Grenoble National Polytechnic Institute (Grenoble INP) the INSTN, the Ecole des Mines in Nantes, the National School of Chemistry in Montpellier, and the National School of Chemistry in Paris. The funding is equally divided between the Chinese and French partners. The education at IFCEN works on the principle of the French “Grandes Ecoles”, or engineering school consisting in three years of intensive study in maths and physics, and three years of engineering school. The programme also includes R&D activity attached to the training.
Unfortunately, there is no specific agreement concerning E&T in radioactive waste management and disposal. Such cooperation programme can possibly be considered with several Chinese leading universities such as Southwest University of Science and Technology (SWUST）that is a multi-disciplinary university with 60 years of education located in Mianyang Sichuan Province. The university is under the administration of both the State Commission of Science Technology and Industry for National Defense and the Sichuan Provincial People’s government. It is one of 14 key universities receiving State’s special support. The university has 2,300 staff including 1,600 teachers, one academician of the Chinese Engineering Academy and 600 associate professors. Studies on radioactive waste are part of curriculum taught. Other possible actors are the School of Nuclear Science and Technology (SNST) jointly founded by University of Science and Technology of China (USTC) and Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences (HFCAS) but also the Beijing Research Institute of Uranium Geology (BRIUG). Provision in European side can be assured by the PETRUS consortium.
The areas of common interest could be education and training in:
• Reliable prediction of the behaviour and evolution of a repository site;
• Characterisation of deep geological environment;
• Thermo-hydro-mechanical and chemical behaviour of engineered and natural barriers ,
• Transfer of radionuclides under coupling conditions (temperature, in-situ stress, hydraulic, chemical, biological and radiation process, etc.);
• Geochemical behaviour of transuranic radionuclides
• Safety assessment and performance assessment of the disposal system.
However, several key questions have to be addressed before the emergence of real and effective collaboration. The first one is how to create a win-win situation? In other words how both parties would take benefit from this partnership? China is looking for world-class partners based on their own national needs. While the Chinese official position is that the “China hopes to learn from European teaching methods and acquire extra knowledge about how to handle radioactive waste disposal projects”, the European interest in such partnership is not very clear. Educating and training future Chinese decision makers can facilitate the business strategy and partnerships but regarding the present economic competition between EU members such argument is more effective at individual country level than at European level. The rationale could be found in another aspect of the expected partnerships. Indeed, China’s strong economic growth rates and its massive investment in the nuclear field can help to boost research in Europe and thereby increase interest in the development of E&T. This added value however cannot be gained without formal commitment from the Chinese side to bring substantial contribution in terms of budget and material means.
Another problem is liked with the size of the country, the number of actors, and the level at which the execution of an agreement obtained with a local university or institution can be guaranteed. Even though a great degree of autonomy is gained by the local Chinese institutions in the recent years, the decision for international collaboration often belongs to the central government. The situation of the present ECNET project bears out the difficulty for European institutions to understand the decision making process in China and to the value given to an agreement. Therefore, before formulating a concrete project it is important to have a good view of Chinese structure and governance system since decision power often lies with actors not directly involving in the discussions.
Finally, problems related to the recognition of academic degrees and comparability of programmes’ contents have to be overcame. Indeed, different legal provisions affect the operation and growth of the collaborative efforts. While European countries have been working to promote QA standards and harmonization mechanisms related to their higher education systems, these efforts are still at an early stage in China. As at the present stage of development, education in radioactive waste disposal is more matter of delivery of set of courses than the obtainment of a degree, the recognition of the ECTS instrument by Chinese universities could be a good progress towards the establishment of a real cooperation.
To seek an effective cooperation in E&T in radioactive waste disposal with China, a step by step approach is recommended.
• Analyse existing models of bilateral and/or European cooperation notably in the field of nuclear engineering and evaluate the experience with these models. A substantial number of collaborations are already under way among which several French programs. Experience gained from these activities can be captured and shared. The information and case study materials could be used as reference material for assessing the feasibility of collaboration and avoiding mistakes in collaborative arrangements among universities.
• Assess what is the added value of E&T collaboration in radioactive waste disposal and how can it be strengthened; identify and define what kind of structures and measures are needed. For receiving updated views a large number of meetings, interviews and discussions must be conducted among European higher education leaders (e.g. PETRUS consortium) and Chinese homologues. There is a need to identify areas where interests are mutual, complementary expertise and capabilities exist and delivery capacity is effective. These include for instance i) Strategic research areas, ii) knowledge and capacity building, iii) teaching and research methodologies, iv) large scale utilisation of Information and Communication Technologies.
• Establish joint education and research agenda; create processes and tools to share lectures and set up networks programme. Being a part of international networks offers unique opportunities for student exchange, scholarships and research collaboration. This can be carried out for instance through the ENEN structure.
• Plan and implement a set of common courses. This can be a first step towards concrete cooperation between Chinese and European universities. Obviously, these courses have to be tested both in quality and in outcomes. Several pilot tests are needed before incorporating effectively these courses in the final curricula.
• Organize student and staff exchanges. Agreement can be established with aim of undertaking part of teaching and research activity in the partner institutions. The short-term visit of doctoral students in order to do some scientific work with a faculty member of the partner institution can be envisaged.
• Organize short training programme. The target is the enhancement of the young researchers’ capability in tackling complex topics related to radioactive waste disposal that is by nature a cross-disciplinary issue. This can be performed by organizing scientific event such as summer schools.
• Particular attention must be given to validation of credits acquired from the courses followed in the host University. For this purpose, several agreements must be signed by the two parties including financial terms. In the learning agreement more detailed information concerning the courses and notably the number of ECTS must be reported. Actual attendance and the amount of the Credit earned (both local and converted to the home system) must be recorded in an “Evaluation Certificate”. The validity of this document must be first agreed by both sides through an official agreement.
4.1.3.3 9 Conclusion
Establishing Education and Training cooperation in radioactive waste disposal between European and Chinese universities is a challenging task. Although such partnerships present several advantages for both sides, many difficulties due to factors including administrative steps and lack of clarity in methods and objectives exist that need to be overcame. Therefore, preparatory works are needed in order to develop a program that provides exchanges that are "safe" for students and beneficial to the participating academic institutions. The first step is to verify the interest of other universities in setting up programs for courses, students and staff exchanges. We suggest starting with establishment of a shared operational protocol, describing the objectives of cooperation, financial resources requirements and administrative arrangements. The protocol should also include documents useful to the student and staff mobility. Lesson learned from the past and on-going collaborations in other sectors of activities can be the basis for the establishment of such protocol.
4.1.3.4 Mutual Recognition of Credit Systems in the European Union and in China
4.1.3.4.1 Framework and Strateies
In order to enhance mobility of students in nuclear sciences between China and Europe, it is of paramount importance to establish a common recognition of the crediting system to evaluate student’s work. In Europe, universities are now settling on the Bologna crediting system. At a preliminary stage, an assessment of previous experiences on mobility of nuclear engineering students between European universities and China should be carried out, to evidence positive aspects and shortcomings. It would be advisable also to draw a clear picture of existing institutional frameworks (common degrees, exchange programs, bilateral agreements and so forth) that are already active in the field of nuclear and energy-related engineering programs at the master and doctorate levels. This step would allow to gain some understanding of possible strengths and weaknesses in the process and to get indications for future effective actions. Consequently, possible common development lines in the field of nuclear education should be investigated and discussed. The main objective of the following step is to establish a common document in which European and China Universities agree on a recognized crediting system. A workshop should give the opportunity to present the outcome of the work and to address issues and solutions. The details of the exchange programs should also be defined in the workshop. These programs might be set up in the frame of already existing collaborations or on the basis of newly established agreements. An important issue would be to find resources in support of the action. A possible (incomplete) list of tasks and objectives is following:
- organize the mobility of master students for sets of courses on specialized topics, either for a full semester or for a shorter period;
- organize the mobility of master students for carrying out the final thesis work;
- assess the possibility to extend the organization of joint programs (master and PhD level) beyond existing frameworks and to harmonize these activities on the basis of common shared principles on the evaluation of the curriculum;
- organize summer schools or similar activities on specific topics (previous experiences are available, e.g. in Asia Link programs);
- organize mobility of lecturers and identify topics and areas on which this activity could take place in the short time scale (e.g. within this program).
The availability of experimental facilities may be an important aspect in the exchange program, in view of the importance in education programs of the possibility for students to get involved in some experimentation. The experience gained would constitute the basis of the recommendations for future longer time-scale collaborations and activities. In the following sections some specific experiences in student exchanges are reported and discussed to show that effective possibilities to initiate an exchange program exist and could be pursued and developed in the future. Some highlights of difficulties encountered in the implementation are illustrated.
4.1.3.4.2 Examples of Previous Exchange Experiences between European and Chinese Universities
Most European universities have been signing formal agreements with counterparts in China in the past years. Several agreements are proving to be quite effective for student exchanges. Politecnico di Torino is one of the leading technical universities in Italy, with a master degree program in nuclear engineering. This university is taken as an example to prove the feasibility of student exchange programs with China. However, several similar projects involving different universities in Europe exist at present. In the CIRTEN Italian consortium, both Politecnico di Milano and the University of Bologna have signed important agreements with various universities in China. Also these existing agreements could serve as a basis for future developments in the field of nuclear engineering. The cooperation between Politecnico di Torino and Chinese institutes has led to signing thirty-four general agreements, as follows. All the information below has been kindly provided by the International Office of Politecnico di Torino.
Southeast University, signed on 07/09/2005
Shanghai Normal University, signed on 05/09/2005
Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications (BUPT), signed on 7/10/2005
Tongji University, signed on 05/12/2005
Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, signed on 12/05/2006
Xi'ian Jiaotong University (XJTU), signed on 13/05/2006
Luoyang Technology College, signed on 11/05/2006
Henan University of Science and Technology, signed on 11/05/2006
Wuhan University of Technology, signed on 15/05/2006
Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), signed on 20/09/2006
Harbin Institute of Technology, signed on 14/09/2007
Kunming University of Science and Technology (KUST), signed on 16/04/2008
Chongqing University of Post and Telecommunications, signed on 21/04/2008
Qingdao University of Science and Technology, signed on 22/04/2008
Beijing Jiaotong University, signed on 23/07/2008
Hefei University, signed on 09/10/2008
Henan University of Technology, signed on 06/11/2008
Tianjin University, signed on 06/11/2008
Shanghai Jiao Tong University, signed on 22/05/2009
Tsinghua University, signed on 25/05/2009
South China University of Technology, signed on 24/09/2009
Tianjin University, signed on 03/09/2009
Southeast University, Nanjing, signed on 25/09/2009
Henan Polytechnic University, signed on 26/09/2009
Henan University of Technology (HAUT), Zhengzhou, signed on 19/10/2009
Beijing Institute of Technology, signed on 27/04/2010
Pontes Foundation Program, signed on 15/05/2010
Southwest University of Science and Technology (SWUST), signed on 02/06/2010
Beihang University, signed on 14/06/2010
Henan University of Technology (HAUT), signed on 06/09/2010
The Department of Education of the Henan Province, signed on 06/09/2010
Inner Mongolia University of Technology, signed on 08/10/2010
Beijing Institute of Technology, signed on 13/04/2011
Hunan University, signed on 23/06/2011
Furthermore, 13 agreements for granting double degree and agreements on student exchange exist at present, as follows:
Taiyuan University of Science and technology, signed on 25/09/2006
Tongji University, signed on 26/10/2006
Xi'ian Jiaotong University, signed on 20/11/2006
Shanghai Jiaotong University, signed on 10/12/2006
Southeast University, Nanjing, signed on 21/05/2007
Tongji University, signed on 14/11/2007
Harbin Institute of Technology, signed on 19/05/2009
South China University of Technology, signed on 03/11/2009
Henan University of Technology, signed on 4/06/2010
Kunming University of Science and Technology, signed on 19/10/2010
Luoyang Institute of Technolgy, signed on 21/10/2010
Henan Polytechnic University, signed on 28/10/2010
Beihang University, signed on 05/07/2011
Five agreements have been signed for the establishment of a campus at Politecnico di Torino. The “Campus” constitutes a reference point within the premises of Politecnico di Torino for the students coming from five Chinese Universities (listed below). It acts as a platform of the five Chinese Universities for the development of joint activities with Politecnico di Torino.
Xi’ian Jiaotong University, signed on 18/02/2009
Tongji University Shanghai, signed on 19/05/2009
Harbin Institute of Technology, signed on 19/05/2009
Tianjin University, signed on 03/09/2009
Southeast University of Nanjing, signed on 22/09/2009
In 2005 an agreement between the Minister of Education of the People' s Republic of China and the Minister of Education, University and Research of the Republic of Italy was concluded in order to establish the Sino Italian Campus in Shanghai. The Campus, which started operating in September 2006, evolved from a collaboration of the Politecnico di Torino, the Politecnico di Milano and the Tongji University of Shanghai and established three joint degree courses, stipulated by a commission consisting of Italian and Chinese professors from all three universities. From the academic year 2007/2008 Politecnico di Torino participates at the CSC (Chinese Scholarship Council) program, established in 2007 by China Scholarship Council, a non-profit institution entrusted by the Chinese Government to manage the State Scholarship Fund. This Postgraduate Scholarship Program aims to improve the training of distinguished postgraduates and enhance the development of China’s higher education. CSC sponsors each year up to six thousand talented Chinese students for overseas study, pursuing doctoral degrees and 2+3 years master of Science plus PhD long term degrees. The selection of admitted students in the framework of the CSC program is based on a meritocratic evaluation conducted by an internal commission from the Politecnico di Torino.
All CSC scholarship winners are exempted from tuition fee payments, which corresponds to 2400 € each academic year.
Partner Universities involved:
• Harbin Institute of Technology (HIT)
• Southeast University of Nanjing (SEU)
• Tongji University, Shanghai
• Beijing Institute of Technology (BIT)
• Tianjin University
• Xi’an Jiaotong University (XJTU)
• Zhengzhou university
• Beijing University of Post and Telecommunication
• Beihang University (BUUA)
• South China University of Technology of Guangzhou (SCUT)
• Shandong University of Jinan
Chinese students attending the CSC program at Politecnico di Torino:
2008-09: 34 PhD students, 11 Master of Science + PhD students
2009-10: 20 PhD students, 11 Master of Science + PhD students
2010-11: 20 PhD students, 17 Master of Science + PhD students
2011-12: 8 PhD+ 11 Master of Science + PhD students
2012-13: 1 PhD student
Starting from the academic year 2010-11 Politecnico di Torino promotes the CSC program among Italian students: four students from Politecnico di Torino has been selected to attend the Master of Science Program at Chinese partner Universities.
Italian students attending the CSC program at partner Universities in China:
2011-12:
- 2 students at Tsinghua University
- 2 students at Beihang University
Politecnico di Torino has signed two cooperation agreements with partner Universities for the Doctoral students placement under the framework of Scholarship Council Program:
- Tianjin University 12/12/2008
- South China University of Technology 3/11/2009
It is also worth mentioning other cooperation projects and activities, as listed below.
EU-CHINA Clean Energy Center
EuropeAid cooperation Project for the establishment of a EU-CHINA Clean Energy Center in Beijing aiming at identifying strategies and common policies in the field of clean energy. EC2 was created in March 2010 by the Chinese government and the European Union, which invested 10 million Euros on a five-year project. The project is supported by the Italian Ministry for the Environment, Land and Sea, which co-finances the project with over two million Euro. Politecnico di Torino leads a consortium of five European Institutions (CMCC, Unical, REC, CEA, Chalmers University), and three Chinese Institutions (CASS, ERI, Tsinghua University).
Erasmus Mundus (Action 2): EXPERTS
Launched in 2010, the Erasmus Mundus (Action 2) project supports the individual mobility to and from third countries. The project, financed by the European Commission, provides scholarships for students, PhD, researchers, academic and administrative staff. The scholarship recipients comes from: Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Indonesia, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Philippines.
Henan campus
The “Politecnico di Torino – Henan Campus”, supported by the Department of Industry and Information of the Henan Province, was established in 2010 within the premises of the Henan University of Science and Technology.
From the academic year 2011/12, Chinese students attend the first year at HUST. Courses in the following years can be attended for two or three years at Politecnico di Torino, according with the curriculum studiorum agreed by the two partner Universities. Upon completion of their studies, students obtain the bachelor of Science degree.
Research Laboratory in Luoyang
Joint Research Laboratory in the field of glasses and glass fibres for Photonic application has been established in 2008 and is located in Luoyang. It is supported by the City of Luoyang.
Agreement for the implementation of student exchange and professorship program between the Italian Ministry of Environment, Land and Sea (IMELS), Politecnico di Torino andTongji University
In June 2011 an agreement between the Italian Ministry of Environment, Land and Sea (IMELS), Politecnico di Torino and Tongji University was concluded in order to widen the scientific and academic cooperation between the two universities in the fields of automotive innovation and sustainable mobility through the exchange of experience and the implementation of student exchange and professorship program. The project, sponsored by the Italian Ministry of Environment, Land and Sea, provides scholarships for Master of Science students and PhD students and support the mobility of the teaching staff of the involved sectors.
The program started operating in September 2011: until now, 4 Chinese students and 4 Italian students are completing their Master of Science degree in Automotive Engineering. Each student must spend 18 months at the partner Institution. Upon completion of their studies, students participating in this program will obtain a Double Degree from Politecnico di Torino and Tongji University.
At last, it is interesting to present the statistical data of the presence of Chinese students at Politecnico di Torino. The data show clearly the growing interest of Politecnico di Torino in receiving Chinese students and its attractiveness.
Number of Chinese Students at the Politecnico di Torino
academic year 2004-2005: 9
academic year 2005-2006: 20
academic year 2006-2007: 150
academic year 2007-2008: 364
academic year 2008-2009: 582
academic year 2009-2010: 722
academic year 2010-2011: 889
academic year 2011-2012: 1142
4.1.3.4.3 Examples of Previous Exchange Experiences between European and Chinese Universities in the Nuclear Engineering Field
Exchange programs at Politecnico di Torino at the master level
The master program in nuclear engineering has been involved in a European Asia Link project in the period 2005-2008. The partners of the project were the Royal Institute of Technology (Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan, KTH, Sweden, coordinator), on the European side, and TsingHua University (Beijing) and Harbin Engineering University (HEU, Harbin), on the Chinese side. The title of the project was: “An EU-China Campus for Energy and the Environment”. The project involved themes in both nuclear engineering and fuel cells for sustainable energy production. In the framework of the above project, several educational activities were carried on over the years, establishing a very fruitful interaction that lasts well beyond the time span of the project itself. Several students from the two European institutions obtained some of their academic requirements by performing some activity in China. Also a program for carrying out some experimental activities in Chinese facilities was implemented. From Politecnico di Torino a student travelled to Beijing for a six-month period to complete his final project that led to a master’s thesis that was accepted and defended at the home university. Two summers schools were organized. The first one took place in Beijing and in Harbin, with a wide and specialized program. The second one was given in Beijing only and was focused on specific reactor physics and fuel cycle topics. Both schools were very successful. Within the project, there was the opportunity for European university professors (from both Politecnico di Torino and KTH) to spend some time in Beijing to give part of an institutional course. These occasions were very useful to establish good relationships with Chinese colleagues and students, which led soon to other exchanges at the PhD level. These two latter examples prove the feasibility of fruitful teacher/instructor exchanges, too.
In all the above activities, the language barrier constituted the most noticeable shortcoming. A big effort should be devoted to overcome this problem.
Experiences at Politecnico di Torino at the PhD level
In the frame of the project, Politecnico di Torino has hosted two Chinese students for common PhD activities:
- One Chinese student spent two years at Politecnico di Torino and one year at KTH and he earned his degree from Politecnico di Torino;
- One Chinese PhD candidate from TsingHua travelled to Politecnico di Torino for a six-month period to carry out a work of common interest.
In both cases, the work has led to publications in international journals and in the proceedings of international conferences.
4.1.3.4.4 The agreement between Politecnico di Torino and the Shanghai Jao Tong University
Politecnico di Torino and the Shanghai Jao Tong University have approved and officially signed in the past an agreement for granting a double master’s degree in Electro-Energetics Engineering, which includes a track in nuclear engineering. Chinese students would attend a full year of studies at Jao Tong, followed by a full year in Torino, to complete their curriculum. The courses in Torino are all provided in English, to facilitate exchanges. The agreement is still in force, and it could be used in the future as a reference for other similar agreements involving other universities.
A “pilot” example of exchange
In the past year informal contacts have been established between European and Chinese universities, leading to useful experiences in the exchange of students. The lessons learned in previous undertakings have helped to manage the various steps. More recently, an exchange project has been successfully started between Politecnico di Torino and the Jao Tong University in Shanghai (SJTU). Exploiting some contacts with colleagues at SJTU (in particular with Prof Xu Cheng, who is also taking part in this project), it has been arranged for a student of Politecnico di Torino to spend a six-month period in China to fully carry out the work leading to the preparation of the final thesis. The Chinese side has been very collaborative and will provide due assistance to the student to make most profitable his stay in China. The topic of his thesis has been discussed by both partners to a mutual satisfaction. The tentative title of the thesis is: “The development of sub-channel code for heavy liquid metal reactor”. The work will take place at the School of Nuclear Science and Engineering of SJTU under the supervision of Prof. Xiaojing Liu. Profs. S. Dulla and P. Ravetto serve as the tutors for the home university. The home university will provide some contribution to cover the travel and living expenses of the student. The student plans to start his exchange period in September 2013.
A “reference” agreement for the establishment of a common master’s degree.
A reference agreement to establish cooperation programs between Politecnico di Torino and Chinese universities has been signed. This framework is currently employed as a starting point for common programs in all educational engineering programs and could be adopted also in the nuclear field.
4.1.3.5 Education and Training Facilities, Laboratories and Equipment
4.1.3.5.1 Framework and Strategies
Education and training (E&T) of young nuclear engineers and scientists and knowledge management become a key issue in the sustainable development of nuclear power both in Europe and China. A tight collaboration and interaction between Europe and China enables the exchange of experience, human resources and an optimum usage of existing facilities, and subsequently enhances the effectiveness of E&T activities. The main objectives of this part of the work are:
- To identify the E&T facilities, laboratories and equipments for exchange purposes – in EU and in China (in close cooperation with existing database, such as by IAEA, OECD/NEA, other EU projects and Chinese national projects);
- To assess the capability of the facilities and to clarify the access rules and procedures.
The facilities considered for nuclear E&T consist of two groups, summarized in, but not limited to the following list:
- Separate effects facilities, such as:
Flow visualization facilities
Heat transfer facilities
Severe accident facilities
Material corrosion and/or stress corrosion cracking facilities
Multi-phase facilities
Flow induced vibration facilities
Numerical visualization of various separate phenomena
-Integral effect facilities or laboratories, such as:
Research reactors
Radiation protection labs
Nuclear Power Plant Simulators
Hot labs and radiochemistry labs
Facilities for safety systems
Software platform for coupled numerical simulation
The first task is to identify existing facilities in both Europe and China based on public (e.g. IAEA, OECD) and internal (e.g. internal report of partner organizations) information sources. A detailed assessment of the collected information will be carried out with the purpose to identify the purpose and capability of various facilities, to clarify the rules and procedures to access the facilities, and if required to develop strategy to support the exchange purposes.
4.1.3.5.2 Objectives to be achieved and the Corresponding Action Plan
Based on a recent activity developed within the EU Sustainable Nuclear Energy Technology Platform, a survey was undertaken across OECD countries to measure the availability and rate of use of nuclear research infrastructure for education and training. Some recommendations based on the outcomes of this investigation are (SNE-TP 2010):
- Co-ordination of the access to research facilities suitable for E&T uses should be internationalised and efforts should be made by governments to financially support existing structure.
- Research facilities should work with industry and academia to create opportunities for more effective use of research facilities so as to enhance learning in training and education - Special attention should be directed to the needs of universities for access to relevant nuclear instrumentation and critical facilities, including research reactors to perform research and enhance education. Infrastructure support should be provided to maintain existing nuclear facilities, where these can be refurbished, or to replace them, when they are obsolete.
- Governments should strongly encourage and support the international initiatives and programmes, which foster consistent quality of the education and training being delivered in different countries and overall contribute to enhancing human resource development capacities.
The main objectives of this work are:
- To identify existing facilities, laboratories and equipments in both EU countries and China for possible E&T purpose;
- To assess the capability of the facilities and to clarify the access rules and procedures;
- To make recommendations to support the exchange purpose.
The work package is tightly connected to the other activities of the project. It provides information of and recommendations for the common usage of E&T facilities for the three subjects Nuclear Engineering, Radiation Protection, Waste Management and Disposal dealt with in sections 4.1.3.1 4.1.3.2 and 4.1.3.3 respectively.
The first task to identify existing facilities in both Europe and China is based on public and internal information sources. A list of criteria has been worked out, to select facilities most suitable for exchange programmes. For the selected facilities, features for exchange purposes are described, such as access rules, administration procedure and integration into the educational credit systems. 11 organizations are participating in this work, 4 European institutions and 7 Chinese institutions.
4.1.3.5.3 Selection of Facilities
Nuclear education and training is a subject attracting strong interest of the nuclear community. There exist, thus, several extensive analysis reports, such as the OECD/NEA report: “Research and Test Facilities Required in Nuclear Science and Technology (NEA, 2009)”, which also led to the compilation of the Research and Test Facility Database, containing information on over 700 nuclear test and research facilities. In Europe, the Sustainable Nuclear Energy Technology Platform (SNE-TP), which was established in 2007, had a working group in the area of education, training and knowledge management (SNE-TP 2010), which issued also a report on facilities for nuclear E&T.
To avoid too strong duplication and to take bilateral interests and the feasibility of common usage of facility into consideration, this report will focus on a few facilities covering the three subjects.
The main criteria are:
- Purpose. The facility is devoted to education, training or research, and not to commercial profit.
- Subjects. The facility is related to one of the three subjects, i.e. nuclear engineering, radiation protection and waste management
- Access rules. The facility is accessible for collaboration with Chinese partners, and has no political or commercial limitation factor.
- Target person. The facility can be used for E&T of graduate students or operation personals.
- Quality over Quantity. The number of selected facilities should be limited. Results related to the selected facilities should provide information and instruction for the establishment of collaboration.
The facilities selected in this report are described in a separate report. Here some facilities of Chinese partners are also included. On the recommendation of European project partners, and in agreement with the Chinese counterparts, some Chinese facilities are included in this report, to show some comparative information of facilities of both sides.
Education Reactors
Comprehensive databases on world research reactors exist, as IAEA Research Reactors Database (IAEA 2006). It, however do not report information on the E&T use of such facilities. According to the report issued by the ETKM working group of SNE-TP (SNE-TP 2010), in Europe, roughly one half of the research reactors are used for education at MSc/BSc levels, coupled with MSC and PhD thesis. It is also noted that more PhD students are involved in a research reactor than MSc students due to flexible time schedule of PhD thesis. Moreover, purpose of research reactors is not limited to nuclear engineering. They can be used for many other research subjects, such as physics, material, medicine, and other nuclear applications. Thus, this report does no’t include research reactors.
Thermal-hydraulic Facilities
A wide variety of thermal-hydraulic facilities (THF) exists in Europe and in China. THF in Europe is well documented and summarized in the report (SNE-TP 2010), where THF facilities are categorised according to their size and purpose. According to the selection criteria mentioned above, the following facilities are selected in this report covering three different classes, i.e. Integral test facility, facilities for Gen-IV systems and facilities for fundamental studies.
Computer Simulators.
Computer simulations and numerical simulators enable a better understanding of the structure and dynamic behaviour of nuclear systems, e.g. nuclear power plants, and will surely contribute significantly to the nuclear education and training, although there remains a need for the student/trainee to experience work environment conditions which are closer to the real world.
Facilities for Waste Management
The Josef Underground Laboratory is a new Faculty of Civil Engineering, Czech Technical University (CTU) in Prague. It was opened in June 2007 and is employed primarily for the teaching of students from the CTU and other universities. Other activities include research and cooperation on projects commissioned by the private business sector. The range of activities provided by the Josef underground laboratory is unique not only in the Czech Republic but throughout the whole of Europe. It provides a high level of practical education for students in real conditions and contributes to closer cooperation between universities and the world of business.
The underground laboratory HADES is the most important research infrastructure in Belgium for experimental research on the deep geological disposal of radioactive waste. It is situated in Boom clay at a depth of 224 meters. The major phases in the development of HADES comprised, among other things, the construction of the first access shaft (1980-1982), the building of the Underground Research
Laboratory (URL) (1982-1983) and the experimental shaft (1983-1984), the extension of the lab with the Test drift (1987), the construction of the second access shaft (1997-1999) and the realisation of the connexion gallery (2001-2002). The building of the underground laboratory demonstrated that it is technically feasible to dig out shafts and galleries in a plastic clay layer. Moreover, the excavation techniques have continuously been improved during the successive phases and methods have been developed to minimise the disruption of the clay formation. HADES is the reference laboratory for research on geological disposal of radioactive waste in clay formations. It is internationally recognised as a centre of expertise for disposal in clay, within the framework of the 'Network of Centres of Excellence for the Demonstration of and the Training in Radioactive Waste Disposal Technologies in Underground Research Facilities'.
Radiation Protection
Radiation protection is a topic not only for nuclear engineering, but also for many other subjects, such as medical applications. Among a large number of radiation protection labs, two are introduced in this report. The Nuclear Practical Laboratory at the University of Manchester has been under operation since 2005. This lab, as presented in Figure 22, contains radiation detectors, radioactive sources and a (thermal) neutron source (from alpha-Be) and can be used to demonstrate properties of radiation A range of state-of-the-art nuclear detectors for alpha, beta, gamma, neutron detectors and water-moderated alpha-Be neutron source for neutron activation experiments are available in the lab. The laboratory is used for educational programmes for undergraduate physicists and engineers, and MSc students on degree programmes requiring practical demonstrations and experience in using experimental apparatus and detectors. It is not applied for research projects. In this Lab research and services related to the quantification and characterisation of radiation doses are conducted. The main research lines are situated in the field of:
• Personal dosimetry and dosimetric techniques.This lab aims at testing and improving several new techniques, and introduces them in practical applications, with a focus on active personal dosemeters, thermoluminescent and optically stimulated luminescent detectors.
• Medical dosimetric applications. The dominant research activities in diagnostic radiology are on measurement and simulation techniques, optimization of patient doses (also with respect to image quality), and on medical staff radiation protection.
In radiation therapy the focus is on the determination of peripheral doses and on-line dosimetry, to improve quality assurance of the treatment and radioprotection of patients. Concerning the exposure of medical staff, the focus is on optimizing the working procedures in the medical field with respect to radiation protection.
• Space dosimetry. Different programmes are established in collaboration with international expert groups, mainly focused around the DOBIES project (Dosimetry for Biological Experiments in Space). The dose is measured in different places in the International Space Station ISS to assess the dose by using a combination of dosimetric techniques.
• Neutron dosimetry. This lab is collaborating with different partners to characterize neutron fields in workplace situations. Also different available detector techniques are tested and characterized.
• Retrospective dosimetry. Retrospective dosimetry is a technique which enables the after-the-fact determination of overexposure using common materials which are available in the public domain. In this lab, research is done on building materials such as brick and roof tiles include heated materials (ceramics) which can act as a dosimeter.
• Internal dosimetry. In the anthropogammametry laboratory of SCK•CEN the focus is on the improvement of the direct measurements. This can be done by using modular physical phantoms (varying in length and weight) and by use of Monte Carlo code to simulate different counting geometries for the calibration of the measurement setup.
4.1.3.5.5 Summary
As it is known, the continuous development of nuclear power in international market requires an increase in high qualified engineers and scientists in nuclear R&D, design, manufacture, operation and licensing and supervision authorities. Nuclear education and training is a subject attracting strong interest of the nuclear community. This is also the common problem facing both EU and China in 21st century. Therefore, a tight international collaboration and exchange would contribute to the achievement of high quality education and training.
The objective of this report is to identify existing facilities, laboratories and equipments in both EU countries and China for the education and training purpose. Firstly, the criteria are established to select the existing test facilities of EU and China. Secondly, 17 test facilities covering the areas of nuclear engineering, waste management, and radiation protection are selected based on the criteria.
They are: education reactor in University Stuttgart, PKL integral facility in AREVA, KALLA in KIT, SWAMUP in SJTU, KIMOF in KIT, SMOTH in SJTU, KIVIF in KIT, MIRFF in SJTU, IAEA simulators, KISILA in KIT, Simulator Manchester University, Simulator at HRBEU, Simulator at SJTU, Josef underground laboratory in CTU, HADES underground laboratory in SCK⋅CEN, Nuclear practical laboratory in Manchester University, Laboratory for radiation protection dosimetry in SCK⋅CEN.
The facilities can be divided into three categories i.e. education reactor, thermalhydraulic facilities, simulators of nuclear power plants. Finally, the capabilities of the facilities are assessed to clarify the access rules and procedures, to make recommendations to support the exchange purpose between China and EU. The detailed information and questions sheets about every test facility are also offered in a separate report. The report provides also useful information of the public education and training facilities in the EU and in China.
Potential Impact:
4.1.4 Strategy on Nuclear Human Resources and Knowledge Management.
4.1.4.1 Status on Nuclear Human Resources.
While some countries have experienced challenges in maintaining national education and training infrastructure (in particular those with declining nuclear programmes or where smaller numbers of specialists are required) the general outlook of nuclear academic programmes seems to have improved over the last ten years. Some new and advanced nuclear courses are being launched in an increasingly global context. And these have sometimes succeeded attracting healthier numbers of students, whose interest may be stimulated by the prospect of new build, or high profile research topics and international projects.
In Sweden, nuclear education has now reached a very good state, with the numbers of students and professors markedly on the increase. Different education programmes are active in universities at various levels. Numerous new academic activities have also recently started, including the first dedicated programme in nuclear engineering at bachelor level, just launched in the autumn of 2010 at Uppsala University; the new nuclear engineering MSc started in the autumn 2009 by the Chalmers Institute of Technology, in Gothenburg, to train specialists for the nearby nuclear power plants.
In France, comprehensive, diversified and more specialised nuclear-related engineering programmes are provided in more than 30 engineering schools and universities through a well established and robust nuclear education system. Some longstanding and other recently launched courses, covering core and nuclear engineering disciplines as well as more specific subjects (e.g. chemistry/cycle or materials for nuclear/fuel, or safety/security) offer a growing supply capacity estimated, for the year 2009-2010, at approximately 900 students. Most of the nuclear specialised curricula last 1 or 2 years. Some engineering schools and universities have created new, more specialised programmes, with 2 and 3 year curricula in safety/security and nuclear engineering.
In Spain, new advanced courses have been set up in some universities over and above basic, more traditional nuclear subjects, and include: transmutation, material science, advanced computer codes, nuclear fusion technology, etc. These topics sought by the sector are appealing to students.
In Belgium, a four-year master courses in nuclear technology, medical nuclear techniques and radiochemistry is organised by three Belgian institutes. Radiation Protection Expert course granting the qualification of “radiation expert” started by SCK•CEN, two Belgian technical universities together with IRE (Institut National des Radio-Éléments).
In Italy, a two new master courses have started in the Universities of Bologna (2008) and Genoa (2010), the latter partially founded by the EU. The master degree in Nuclear Safety and Security delivered at the University of Pisa with the collaborative effort of industry, research centres and institutions (e.g. CIRTEN, Ansaldo Nucleare, ITER Consult, etc.) provides a curriculum in nuclear safety and security compatible with other Nuclear Engineering programmes in Europe. This is preceded by a preparatory course for students with MSc in industrial and civil engineering, but also physics and chemistry, to have a basic formation in nuclear science and technology.
In UK, at the master level, British universities have preserved existing courses, and introduced new ones, as a result of discussions with the industry and in response to identified needs.
In Germany, education, especially at postgraduate levels, has been enhanced by coupling with attractive research topics and international collaboration projects. Interestingly, the number of professors at universities has seen a considerable rise in recent years up to 2010, in contrast to the previous forecast made in 2004 .
It is important that universities inform and encourage prospective students to choose nuclear related courses. As a recent survey conducted in Switzerland by Nuklearforum Schweiz has shown, pre-university students are much more open to the notion of nuclear energy as part of a sustainable energy mix than are their school teachers.
In some countries universities are engaging with technical colleges, sometimes franchising courses and establishing partnerships to address the increasing demand of craft and technical levels in the sector. Initiatives are taken in this respect by various universities, for instance through the organisation of summer schools or “mentor projects” to give secondary school students an insight into nuclear courses (NEA, 2004).
4.1.4.2 Strategy on Nuclear Human Resources.
The distinctive characteristics of nuclear energy and its fuel cycle provide special requirements for E&T. In all countries with a nuclear programme, there exists a substantial nuclear estate to be safely operated and maintained. An essential complement to technical advancement must be the skills to support implementation and safe operations of nuclear facilities. Intricate global supply chains involving utilities, vendors and contractors in manufacturing, engineering, construction, operations, maintenance and decommissioning attend activities across the lifecycle of the nuclear reactor, bringing extensive direct employment. Highly skilled workforces involved are substantial and constitute a significant element of the costs of building and operating nuclear power plants. It may be surprising, therefore, that there are no robust estimates of the global workforce. The situation is reflected by the example of the international publication Nuclear Energy Outlook [NEA, 2008] which devotes a single page out of a total of over 450 to “Quantifying Workforce Needs”. In recognition of the gap in manpower data, the IAEA has recently launched a global Nuclear Power Human Resource Survey, intending to cover every NPP operator across the world and to collect comprehensive information that captures all of the different types of personnel that are currently applied to support operating nuclear power programmes. At a European level, the newly established European Human Resource Observatory Nuclear (EHRO-N) will produce and regularly update a quality-assured data base on the supply and demand of human resources. In the United States the Nuclear Energy Institute performs surveys of utility workforce needs. Estimates of workforce needs published by some individual nations (e.g. France, the United Kingdom and the United States) indicate future manpower demand in the tens-to-hundreds of thousands of skilled workers. In this respect the nuclear industry faces the dual challenge of an ageing workforce and a decline in the pool of people with recent construction experience, limitations that are exacerbated by the long lead times for nuclear training. Without coherent interventions by industry, governments and universities, severe workforce shortages in the arena of commercial nuclear plants may still emerge, mainly attributable to more than two decades of stasis in demand for new civilian plants and the increasing numbers of retirees.
4.1.4.3 Nuclear Engineering
4.1.4.3.1 Introduction
In order to build a long term cooperation in Education&Training in the field of nuclear engineering between Europe and China, a minimal insight on the current implement E&T programs is necessary. In the ECNET Report "Needs and strategies of cooperation on E&T in the area of nuclear engineering", the European situation is provided in an international context, with the current and future legal background of nuclear engineering. Also, an overview of the current status of the education & training framework in nuclear engineering is given, together with the status and strategy of human resources and knowledge management in this topic. In parallel, the same information was expecting to be provided by the Chinese part, in order to see both situations and then to prepare the present deliverable for a long term cooperation.
During the period of duration of the project we have not received information available on the Chinese situation about nuclear energy needs and possible strategies of collaboration in education & training in nuclear engineering, other than we received during the kick-off meeting in Beijing. During the last meeting in London (December 2012) the EU partners in the project decided to contact each Chinese WP leader, sending several key question with the main objective to prepare deliverables according to the answers. However, we didn´t receive any answer from the Chinese partners, at least in the field of nuclear engineering.
In order to obtain some conclusions and recommendations, this report provides an overview of the Chinese nuclear program for the next coming years, and according to that, consider if the education and training provided by Chinese universities and institutions is able to abord the ambitious nuclear program by themselves for the next 20-30 years, in relation with trainers and trainies. However, due to the limited amount of information no roadmap and guidelines can be drawn for a long term cooperation in this field.
4.1.4.3.2.The Chinese program of nuclear engineering.
Because the economy in China has been growing very rapidily in the last 20 years, they have urgently need of energy in general, and it is more important than in Europe for the next 20 or 30 years from now. In this scenario, the nuclear energy is the more demanded due to the higher power installed per unity, with less dependance of imported fuel, as gas or oil, and preserving the environment. It is expected that by 2020 the electricity demand in China will become to duplicate as compared to 2010.
Concerning the global environment, China recently overtook the USA as the world's largest contributor to CO2 emissions, because more than 80% of electricity production comes from fossil fuel. The Chinese contribution to the global coal-related emissions will grow by 2.7% per year and reach 9.3 billion tones in 2030.
Due to the well known limitation in renewable energy and hydro-power, nuclear power is considered as a safe, clean, sustainable and economic energy source. In 2007, China issued an ambitious program of mid-term nuclear power development, in which the total nuclear power will reach 88 GW with 58 GW in operation and 30 GW under construction by 2020. Being around 200 GW by 2030 and around 400 GW by 2050. That will make about 25% of the total electricity production at that time, overtaking the average of nuclear energy in the world, fixed in 16%.
4.1.4.3.3. Needs of Education and Training in Nuclear Engineering
At the beginning of this century the growing recognition of climate change and the need to decarbonize the generation of electricity was becoming obvious. Many countries initiated new nuclear programmes to cope with the future electricity needs. However, the short timescales needed to deliver the new power station programmes highlighted a number of challenges. It was immediately obvious that there were insufficient manufacturing facilities to meet the potential demand and it was also obvious there would be skill shortage not only in the supply chain but also to design, construct, commission, operate the new facilities, and to decommission the old plants.
The distinctive characteristics of nuclear energy give special requirements for education and training. In national level, countries with nuclear power need young nuclear engineers. Significant efforts will be required to maintain an adequate skilled and competent workforce, compensating a generally ageing workforce and maintaining long term sustainability, especially in those countries that have pregrammed a growing of nuclear energy, as is the case of China.
The continuous development of nuclear power in international market requires an increase in high qualified engineers and scientists in nuclear R&D, design, manufacture, operation and licensing and supervision authorities. In European nuclear engineers are needed both for national demand and international market. With globalization of the nuclear industry, nuclear power has become an international business. Great emphasis has been placed on international collaboration for regulation, R&D, as well as the global supply chains involving utilities, vendors and contractorsin manufacturing, engineering, construction, operations, maintenance and decommissioning.
With aspect to international market, the EU nuclear industries are strongly involved in the international nuclear market. Due to the global expansion of nuclear power, young generation nuclear engineer is required to fulfil the requirements on the increase in the total engineers.
In China, the education of young nuclear engineers becomes a problem in the development of nuclear power. Only the growth of nuclear power with a speed of about 10 GWe per year requires new nuclear engineers of several thousands every year. To educate this large number of nuclear engineers, many Chinese universities established in the past few years nuclear engineering departments. However, the quality of nuclear educators as well as education infrastructure at such new departments is not guaranteed. Several Chinese universities have established agreements with european universities, having large experience in nuclear education, to provide joint degrees and in some cases double degrees, exchanging students abroad and receiving foreing professors in nuclear energy.
The nuclear training of nuclear professionals belongs mainly to tasks of nuclear industries themselves. In one side they establish their own training facility and training programs. European industry has installed offices and signed agreements to deliver training programs for groups of employees, such as leadership, researcher and operators for nuclear installations in the fuel cycle and in the NPPs.
After the Fukushima accident nuclear education and training becomes more important and attracts more attention of both European and Chinese nuclear community. One lesson learned is to enhance a tight collaboration and interaction. It is well agreed that nuclear power engineering, especially nuclear safety, is an international issue not restricted to national level. Education and training of high qualified nuclear engineers for nuclear industries is a common interest of EU and China.
In the EU, a large experience in construction, operation in nuclear facilities, including nuclear E&T facilities is available. Chinese nuclear environment and nuclear technology will be fruitful for European young nuclear engineers for their future collaboration projects with China.
4.1.4.3.4. Cooperation between China and Europe in E&T in Nuclear Engineering.
In the kick-off meeting, the North China Electric Power University (NCEPU) dedicated a presentation to define what was interesting from Chinese E&T in nuclear engineering. Information concerning the current E&T framework in nuclear engineering in China should have been delivered during the second Project Quarter. This task should include for the Chinesee part : organizations of nuclear education and training program; definition of the curricula of nuclear education, for graduates in Nuclear Engineering in Masters and in Doctoral Degrees; level required of trainees and curricula of training programs; general definition of certification, qualification, competences, passport etc.
In this overview, it was defined as a key point for the cooperation in nuclear education and training program, both in the domestic scenario and in the international one. Recommendations on the Roadmap and the Guidelines of the Cooperation were planned to be delivered during the 5th Project Quarter, in which governments, industry and universities would be taken into account. For the industry, the following topics were identified: management aspects, human resources and cooperation with universities . For the governements, policy aspects, legal and financial aspects to initiate a more global cooperation. Finally, for universities, the curricula of nuclear education, the curricula of training programs and the cooperation with industries. However, this ambitious program that would be covered in the ECNET Project, could not be completed as no information was provided from the Chinese side. The following questions were sent to NCEPU, but the returned information was insufficient:
• How many nuclear power plants are in operation at your country? And how many are under construction?
• What is the percentage of the nuclear power in the total electricity?
• Is there any power plant in decommissioning?
• What are the plans of the Governement for the nuclear energy in the next forty years?
• What is the public opinion about the nuclear energy at your country?
• What areas of the nuclear engineering are covered by your national enterprises, and what are less covered?
• Are there any of your national enterprises working in nuclear projects outside your country?
• Could you say some words about the regulatory authority in yor country related the needs of E&T?
• Do you see opportunities in the EU- China collaboration in E&T in Nuclear Engineering?
• What recommendations and guidelines should you consider for this collaboration?
• Does your government grants students for mobility?
• Does the Chinesse industry needs human resources for the nuclear program? How many yearly?
• Does universities cover all curricula for the nuclear applications? What is the relationship between universities and end users?
• Do you see interesting to create several E&T pilots courses in NE?
• Do you consider that bilateral agreements with EU universities are well stablished or need some additional enhancement?
• What is the added value for China of this long term cooperation?
4.1.4.3.5. Conclusion and Recommendation for a Long Term Cooperation between China & Europe on Education & Training in Nuclear Engineering.
Because of the scarce amount of information provided by Chinese partners, any recommendation for a long term cooperation, besides the exchange of information, is difficult to identify. However, this project has several important attactives for the young generations of both sides, that should need explore as a real continuation of this ECNET project, and our proposal is to enhance and initiate new conversations because many of the EC partners in this project have bilateral agreements with some of the Chinese universities also in the project. It is not difficult to create a basic curricula for joint degrees.
For the EU a number of challenges could be:
1. How to capture the knowledge of those in the nuclear industry who will retire in the next decade so that all their experience and the lessons learned by the nuclear industry will not be lost.
2. How to make the nuclear industry attractive to young engineers and scientists so that the aspirations of Member States; whether to expand their use of nuclear power, maintain their current programmes or withdraw from nuclear power and decommission their nuclear power stations and other nuclear facilities; can be met for decades into the future.
3. How can the decline in the nuclear education and training programmes be reversed and universities and colleges be persuaded to develop and deliver the necessary nuclear engineering and science programmes to provide the nuclear workforce of the future.
These challenges are also valid for the Chinese E&T program, and particularly is more important due to the above behaviours. Both sides should encourage again this ambitious program in the Horizon 2020, with more expected impacts as:
• to promote the mutual recognition of the Education and Training(E&T) programmes on EU and Chinese side.
• to expand the exchanges of students, and lecturers.
• to secure the knowledge management as appropriate.
• to prepare benchmarks for the curricula.
• to establish a common definition of the profiles of workers in different areas of nuclear engineering
• to define traning programmes in close collaboration with the industry and regulators.
In a future project stakeholders and end users shoud be involved. These would offer to the End-Users a broader basis of human resources and foster cooperation in nuclear power development.
Necertheless, some considerations made to show the status of Nuclear Energy within EU and China and to establish a roadmap for long term collaboration. First of all, nuclear engineering is a multidisciplinary subject, covering nuclear and reactor physics, material science, mechanics and thermalhydraulics, and others important areas as nuclear safety. For both electrical generation and medical or industrial applications, these disciplines will require expertise in nuclear engineering and science, in the next 30 or 40 years from now.
It is expected to implement the designed pilot items under a new ECNET project at a trial scale (e.g. cross participation in relevant events and courses, exchange of course curricula, exchange of students and lectures, development of specific E&T programs, preparation of textbook and materials, distance learning, knowledge management) in any appropriate multilateral and/or bilateral framework, mainly by the project partners. Establishment of an "EU-China Centre for Nuclear Education and Training" is also discussed as a future possibility.
In a long-term horizon nuclear power is going to expand in countries of the EU and China. Keeping open the nuclear option means an important effort of education and training, maintaining and also increasing the present personnel in both nuclear installations and research organizations. Education, training and knowledge management in nuclear engineering is a matter of concern in most of the worldwide countries, and it is one of the main objectives of the long-term cooperation between EU and China.
4.1.4.4. Strategy on Human Resources in Radiation Protection
4.1.4.4.1 Expected Developments in the European Union
The new European legislation in radiation protection, published in January 2014 and introducing a Radiation Protection Expert and a Radiation Protection Officer with clear defined tasks, has to be transposed into national legislation within a certain timeframe (generally 4 years after publication). At the moment, different EU member states are preparing their legislation around this topic.
Most of the member states will revise
- the education and training of key persons in the field of radiation protection (now: the qualified experts in every possible form, then: the RPE and RPO);
- their system of certification, mainly based on the guidance provided by ENETRAP and EUTERP.
In parallel, most of the member states will adapt their requirements on the medical physics expert (MPE), based on the guidance that will be provided by the Medical Physics Project. Some member states will go further and make an analysis on the minimal staffing of the key persons in radiation protection (RPE, RPO and MPE), based on the tasks, duties and obligations attributed by the revised EU Directive. As confirmed by previous surveys (For example the FP6 ENETRAP survey, but also the survey done in the framework of the MPE project), it is expected that most EU member states experience a general shortage of experts in radiation protection. Projects such as FP6 ENETRAP and FP7 ENETRAP II provided useful input to build up a regulatory system for radiation protection experts which is harmonized in Europe, allowing a mutual recognition between the EU member states with a cross-border mobility of experts in radiation protection.
4.1.4.4.2 Recommendations on the Roadmap and the Guidelines for the Long Term Cooperation
In order to build a long term cooperation in Education & Training in the field of radiation protection between Europe and China, a minimal insight on the current implemented E&T programs is necessary. In the ECNET report "Needs and strategies of cooperation on E&T in the area of radiation protection", the European situation is provided in an international context, with the current and future legal background of radiation protection. Also, an overview of the current status of the education & training framework in radiation protection is given, together with the status and strategy of human resources and knowlegde management in this topic. Since very limited information is available on the Chinese situation of education & training in radiation protection, several key questions were sent to the Chinese project partners of ECNET.
Only the project partners of the Southwest University of Science and Technology (SWUST) and Tsinghua University were able to provide some answers to the questions below. This report provides an overview of the answers. However, due to the limited amount of information no roadmap can be drawn for a long term cooperation in radiation protection.
The Chinese system of radiation protection.
1. Is there a regulatory basis which obliges training in radiation protection?
1.a. for workers (being exposed to ionising radiation)?
According article 28 of the Regulations on Safety and Protection of Radioactive Isotope and Radioactive Installation (Decree 449, issued by the State Council, effective as of December 1, 2005), all activities if production, sales and use of radio-isotopes and radiation devices should be carried out by staff with the knowledge of safety and protection by education and training and assessment.
Article 4.4.1 from the Basic standards for protection against ionizing radiation and for the safety of radiation sources ( GB18871-2002 ) also states that each relevant personnel should be properly trained and have the appropriate qualifications.
It was acknowledged by SWUST that certain categories of workers are obliged to have a training in radiation protection and safety. The following categories were identified:
a. Administrators and inspectors from the radiation safety department of the Environmental Protection Ministry
b. Workers from the companies/organisations that produce, sell, or use radioactive isotopes or facilities.
c. People from other nuclear technique application fields that are related with radiation protection.
1.b. for professionals exposing patients (medical exposures, like e.g. diagnostic radiology, nuclear medicine and radiotherapy)
This was affirmed by Tsinghua University.
1.c. are there also regulation or guidelines for continuous training (after the initial training)
This was affirmed by Tsinghua University; every 2 or 4 years.
If yes, please provide details. If no, will there be a regulatory basis in the near future?
Article 22 of Order 18 of the MEP (Ministry of Environmental Protection - Chinese Environmental Protection Administration) states that the certificate of training as a radiation safety officer, should be renewed once every four years by retraining.
This retraining includes aspects on radiation safety, newly enacted relevant laws, regulations and radiation safety and protection of professional standards, technical specifications, as well as radiation accident case studies and experience feedback.
If there is no participation in this retraining , the radiation safety training certificate automatically expires.
2. Does China have a system of competent persons in radiation protection defined in national regulation or guidelines? If yes, please provide details.
2.a. Qualified persons?
According to the information provided by SWUST, the following profiles are identified in China which seem to be linked to radiation protection and certified by the central government:
- Nuclear Environmental Impact Assessment Engineer
- Nuclear safety Engineer
2.b. Radiation Protection Officer (RPO) and Radiation Protection Expert (RPE)?
Tsingua University stated that these profiles are not implemented so far, but this appears to be in progress.
2.c. Medical Physics Expert (MPE)
Tsinghua University stated that every hospital has a medical physicist position, but no specific certified system exists in the country.
Education & training in radiation protection in China
3. Is the education & training recognized by the Chinese Authorities (Nuclear Regulatory Authority, Ministry of Education, or other)?
It was confirmed that education & training in radiation protection is recognized by the Chinese Ministry of Environmental Protection (Chinese Environmental Protection Administration – EPA) and the Ministry of Health.
4. Do dedicated education & training programmes in radiation protection exist in China (e.g. on a Bachelor or Master level, postgraduate,...)?
Several universities such as Tsinghua University, Sichuan University, Haerbin Industry University etc., have radiation protection programmes.
Collaboration between China and Europe in education & training in radiation protection
5. Is there already an exchange in students between China and Europe in education & training in radiation protection?
This was not confirmed by the Chinese project partners.
6. What are the needs of China in education & training in radiation protection?
6.a. on the level of education & training programmes?
Tsinghua Universtity indicated the following needs: information exchanges, teaching skills and tools, etc.
6.b. on the level of human resources?
Tsinghua Universtity indicated the following needs: high level teachers, training of the teachers, etc.
7. Do you see opportunities for collaboration between EU and China in education & training in radiation protection? If yes, please provide details.
7.a. In exchange of students?
7.b. In setting up a pilot course with a joint programme in radiation protection?
7.c. Are there any guidelines or recommendations to consider for such a collaboration?
As an overall answer to question 7, the Chinese project partners seem to be keen to the collaboration between EU and China, but the key problem is the financial support to these activities.
4. Conclusion and recommendation for a long term cooperation between China & Europe on education & training in radiation protection.
The amount of information provided by the Chinese partners of ECNET WP2 did not provide a full insight into the system of education and training in radiation protection. Therefore, any recommendation for a long term cooperation, besides the exchange of information, is difficult to conclude.
4.1.4.5 Geological Disposal
The following series of questions and answers were exchanged between the European partners and the Chinese partners with respect to Education and Training for nuclear waste management and geological disposal.
• Are there any dedicated curricula on geological disposal at the university level?
Yes, it is treatment and disposal of radioactive wastes; it is mandatory for nuclear major.
• What areas of geological disposal issues are presently covered by the universities’ programs?
The universities programs cover disposal of low, middle and high level radioactive waste
• How many students involve in this field? At which level (bachelor, Master …)?
About 300 students involve in this field; some of them are bachelors, some of them are masters.
• Do you see opportunities in the EU- China collaboration in E&T in geological waste disposal?
Yes. The staffs who take part in the collaboration and communication will be more international, rich experienced and highly talented; which also paves the way for the organizations to be more international. Profound and extensive international cooperation is possible in the future.
• In your opinion which kind of collaboration is more effective (e.g. exchange of courses, exchange of students, short visits…)?
Short visit is more targeted compared to course and student exchange. By studying and talking issues, exchanging ideas face to face the select scholars and experts will improve their ability in scientific research and be more open minded and international, which also do groundwork for future international cooperation.
• What recommendations and guidelines should you consider for this collaboration?
1. The present EU-China collaboration should be pushed forward and extensive collaboration should be explored.
2. Education collaboration should be continued; the counterparts should yearly exchange students and teachers visit and exchange regularly.
3. The program should be continued and perfected, including regular tele-conference, conclusive report, yearly report and exchange visit.
4. Advanced technology in the collaboration should be understood and masted, thereupon more work will be done in research, spread and innovation.
5 Scientific research projects should be applied jointly
6 Effective way for sustainable development should be sought.
• Does you government grants students for mobility?
Yes. Students, such as bachelors, masters and doctors can be educated in courses, experiments and thesis by international exchange.
• Does the Chinese industry need human resources for the geological disposal program? How many yearly?
Yes. China goes slowly in high level waste geological disposal compared to U.S and France. China focuses on construction of underground simulate labs, disposal place sitting and geological verification. Because principle researchers are universities and institutions, so china needs many scientific talents devoted in theoretical calculation and ground experiments.
• What is the relationship between universities and official organizations in charge of radioactive waste management?
The universities can offer talents, support official organizations in radioactive waste management, or train the persons who come from the organizations.
• Do you see any interests in creating several E&T common pilot courses?
Yes. International common pilot courses can foster high level talents, broaden international view, enrich collaboration experience, thereupon paves a way for internationalization. So it is possible for deep and extensive international collaboration in research area.
• Do you consider that bilateral agreements with EU universities are well established or need some additional enhancement?
Even though the bilateral agreements between Eu-China universities has been well established, more discussions should be proceeded in exchange majors and students quantity, so more talents in different levels and different areas can take part in and create international study and exchange atmosphere.
• What is the status of degrees obtained in China? (e.g. recognized at national level, recognized by industry,…)
International degrees are highly recognized both at industry and national level in China because exchange students can improve language and professional ability, understand culture difference, try to think more independently, adapt to different environment ; even though it has been launched a little late in China, this program is remarkable and extensively concerned by students, parents and universities.
• Is transfer of students between Chinese universities possible?
Exchange students can study mandatory courses locally, take part in mass activities and make friends, quickly master foreign languages, improve all-round ability and enrich their experience. International experience is highly valued by universities and enterprises, so exchange program is encouraged by universities and education organizations in China.
• Do you have national/local rules for the recognition of educational modules awarded by another university (abroad and/or inside China)?
China government and local education bodies actively support exchange student program and issue favorable policies to help students to overcome differences in education methods and contents and adapt overseas study and living,
4.1.4.6. Future developments of Europe-China collaborations in Nuclear Education
At a preliminary stage, an assessment of previous experiences on mobility of nuclear engineering students between European universities and China should be carried out, to evidence positive aspects and shortcomings. It would be advisable also to draw a clear picture of existing institutional frameworks (common degrees, exchange programs, bilateral agreements and so forth) that are already active in the field of nuclear and energy-related engineering programs at the master and doctorate levels. This step would allow to gain some understanding of possible strengths and weaknesses in the process and to get indications for future effective actions. Consequently, possible common development lines in the field of nuclear education should be investigated and discussed. It is recommended that the activity considers and proposes efficient ways to organize mobility of master’s students for courses (e.g. one semester). It appears that the main problem would be the language barrier. It is highly recommended to extend the use of the English language in master’s courses, both in European and Chinese universities.
In a first step it seems feasible to try to organize the mobility of master’s students for their final thesis. Previous experiences (e.g. in the framework of the Asia Link Project “An EU-China Campus for energy and environment”, Coordinator: KTH; Partners: Politecnico di Torino, Tsinghua University Beijing and Harbin Technical University) led to successful experiences for both Chinese students moving to the European partner universities and for European students in China.
The possibility of the establishment of joint master’s and PhD programs could also be investigated. It is suggested to analyse all the academic and legal aspects of the matter, to refer to previous existing agreements and to investigate possible solutions. As an example, a program for a common master has been officially established in the Nuclear and Electric engineering field between the Shanghai Jiao Tong University and Politecnico di Torino (students should take one year in Jiao Tong and a second year at Politecnico to earn a common master's degree). Furthermore, several frameworks between China and EU are already existing and could be used for future implementations. For instance, at present Politecnico di Torino has formally signed 19 general agreements and 6 double-degree agreements with Chinese universities, 5 agreements establishing a Chinese campus at Politecnico di Torino and 750 Chinese students in various engineering disciplines have been hosted at Politecnico di Torino in 2010. It is deemed advisable that these agreements are extended to the nuclear and energy education programs.
Another interesting field where collaboration between EU and China could be fruitfully expanded concerns the organization of summer schools and training sessions on experimental facilities (well available in China) and the organization of the mobility of lecturers. In the above-mentioned Asia Link Project two summer schools were held in China and short courses were given on nuclear technology at Tsinghua University.
As an outcome of the on-going work and of the forthcoming workshop to be organized, a report on current status and further recommendations on the implementation and compatibility of nuclear education system will be issued, including a possible agreement on mutual recognition of systems.
The main objective of the following steps in the present project is to establish a common document in which European and Chinese universities agree on a recognized crediting system. Mobility programs might be set up in the frame of already existing collaborations or on the basis of newly established agreements. An important issue would be to find resources in support of the action. A possible (incomplete) list of tasks and objectives is following:
- organize the mobility of master students for sets of courses on specialized topics, either for a full semester or for a shorter period;
- organize education sessions at experimental facilities; this is particularly relevant for European students who may not have the opportunity to visit and practise at large experimental facilities in their own countries;
- organize the mobility of master students for carrying out the final thesis work;
- assess the possibility to extend the organization of joint programs (master and PhD level) beyond existing frameworks and to harmonize these activities on the basis of common shared principles on the evaluation of the curriculum;
- organize summer schools or similar activities on specific topics (previous experiences are available, e.g. in Asia Link programs);
- organize mobility of lecturers and identify topics and areas on which this activity could take place in the short time scale (e.g. within this program).
For experimental activities, the connection with the outcomes of survey of facilties is certainly important.
The experience gained would constitute the basis of the recommendations for future longer time-scale collaborations and activities.
4.1.4.7 Conclusions
Some conclusions can already be drawn on the basis of the experiences presented above on the compatibility of the education systems in Europe and in China with regards to nuclear engineering. All the exchanges between Politecnico di Torino and Chinese universities have proved very fruitful, interesting and useful. All the students involved have shown great appreciation and found highly valuable the mobility experience, both on the technical and on the human sides.
The language barrier still constitutes a major difficulty, both at the academic level and for the everyday life aspects, especially when considering the mobility of European students to China. The exchange for a final project at the master level and for PhD seems to be the most feasible, due to the possibility to use English as an efficient means of communication.
The possibility to reach and to establish a formal agreement leading to a double degree is proved, for instance, by the agreement that has been signed between Politecnico di Torino and Shanghai JaoTong University for granting a double degree in Electric/Energy and Nuclear Engineering. This document (see Annex) could constitute the basis for future similar agreements between European universities or consortia, such as ENEN, and Chinese institutions.
List of Websites:
http://www.enen-assoc.org/en/activities/for-universities/coopbeyondeu/ecnet.html
European Nuclear Education Network Association
Centre CEA de Saclay – INSTN – Bldg 395
F-91191 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
Tel +33 1 69 08 97 57
Fax +33 1 69 08 99 50
E-mail: sec.enen@cea.fr
The general objective of the ECNET project is to coordinate the cooperation between the EU and China in the field of Nuclear Education, Training and Knowledge Management in three areas: Nuclear Engineering, Radiation Protection and Nuclear Waste Management and Geological Disposal. For each of the areas the framework, the objectives and the strategy for long term cooperation are described.
The strategies are developed on the basis of the exchange of information on the current status and expected developments in the nuclear sector, the corresponding needs for academic education and professional training, the courses, the curricula, and the training programmes.
The section addressing Nuclear Engineering describes the current nuclear energy status in the EU, the assessments of the current manpower and the future needs, the response and funding provided by Governments, industries, nuclear education networks and the actions by national regulatory bodies. The organisation of nuclear education and training is described, not only at the higher education levels, but also at the craftsman and technical level, as well as initiatives to "nuclearize" non-nuclear professionals. Lack of input from the Chinese side on nuclear engineering E&T in this project prevented any detailed reporting, but ample information and return of experience from past exchanges between the EU and China is provided in the section dealing with exchange programmes in general engineering as well as for nuclear engineering.
The chapters on Radiation Protection E&T provide an elaborate review of the international safety standards covering radiation protection and the professionals in charge of its implementation. Detailed information is provided on the EU and national legislation and directives, the regulator coordination and cooperation bodies, as well for the nuclear industry and the research facilities, as for the protection of the patients and staff in the medical nuclear sector. The expected development and coordination at European level is described, with the detailed qualifications and education and training needs for the two qualified staff categories, the Radiatio Protection Expert and the Radiation Protection Officer. Input received from the Chinese side indicates that 5 to 10 Chinese universities provide a curriculum in radiation protection. As a typical example, the postgraduate MSc curriculum at Tsinghua University in Beijing is provided.
With respect to Nuclear Waste Management and Geological Disposal, the report provides a review of national policies, reserach and demonstration facilities and the associated opportunities for education and training. The PETRUS concept is presented, drawing students from different disciplines (mining, geology, construction, hydrology, engineering, etc.) into a common set of courses and a thesis work addressing specific nuclear waste management and disposal issues. The Chinese education system and higher education system is analysed with a view on the needs for professionals in the current Chinese nuclear waste management and disposal policy. A proposal for cooperation between the EU and China in this field is developed and described in detail.
The fourth part of the report addresses the implementation of mutual recognition of curricula between European and Chinese academia and the exchange of credits for students. The proposal includes the design and development of pilot courses in the three areas. Unfortunately the lack of response from the Chinese side prevented the organisation of joint exchange courses in this project, but a wealth of results from past experience with such exchanges is reported.
The fifth part of the report addresses the selection of nuclear facilities, laboratories and equipment suitable for eductaion and training in the areas of interest in the project. The list contains both EU and Chinese entries on research reactors, thermal hydraulic facilties, computer simulators, research and demonstration facilities for nuclear waste disposal and laboratories in support of E&T in radiation protection and dosimetry.
The final part of the report covers a series of questions to be answered in a new EU-Chinese cooperation project, where more response and interaction should be expected, and a set of recommendations for the continuation and enhancement of the current cooperation in E&T in the nuclear fields.
Project Context and Objectives:
4.1.2.1 Introduction
Based on the past experiences of each European organization, the objective of the ECNET project is to define a common basis and establish a common framework for effective cooperation between EU and Chinese organisations for Nuclear Education, Training and Knowledge Management.
The expected impacts are:
- to promote the mutual recognition of the Education and Training(E&T) programmes on EU and Chinese side
- to expand the exchanges of students, lectures and lecturers.
- to secure the knowledge management as appropriate.
These would offer to the End-Users a broader basis of human resources and foster cooperation in nuclear power development.
As the first step, the ECNET project handles the analysis of the present situation on EU and Chinese sides, to clarify opportunities and barriers for cooperation, and define a road map for long-term cooperation and the preparation of a good basis for further long-term cooperation in the future.
The scope of the project is:
- Master level and postgraduate education
- Training mainly for young professionals
The Chinese counterparts are supported by China Atomic Energy Authority (CAEA) in the framework of the EURATOM – CAEA Coordinated Activity in Nuclear Fission. The Chinese side agreed to contribute to this project for the same amount of work (40 man-month), as shown in the Letter of confirmation by CAEA.
CAEA is the Chinese governmental organization in charge of peaceful use of atomic energy. Its main functions include:
- Deliberating and drawing up policies and regulations on peaceful uses of nuclear energy;
- Deliberating and drawing up the development programming, planning and industrial standards for peaceful uses of nuclear energy;
- Organizing argumentation and giving approval to China's major nuclear R&D projects; supervising and coordinating the implementation of the major nuclear R&D projects;
- Carrying out nuclear material control, nuclear export supervision and management;
- Dealing with the exchange and cooperation in governments and international organizations, and taking part in IAEA and its activities in the name of the Chinese government;
- Taking the lead to organize the State Committee of Nuclear Accident Coordination, deliberating, drawing up and implementing national plan for nuclear accident emergency.
This project consist of four parts of work
a) Needs and strategies of long-term cooperation in the following three subjects:
- Nuclear Engineering
- Radiation Protection
- Waste Management and Disposal
b) Mutual recognition of credit systems for academic education (ECTS) and vocational training (ECVET)
c) E&T facilities, laboratories and equipments
d) Project management
The Chinese side agrees to work in the same structure; therefore each WP has two leading organizations, one of EU side and the other of Chinese side. The detailed descriptions of the Chinese counterparts are given in section xxx
It is expected to implement the designed pilot items under the ECNET project at a trial scale (e.g. cross participation in relevant events and courses, exchange of course curricula, exchange of students and lectures, development of specific E&T programs, preparation of textbook and materials, distance learning, knowledge management) in any appropriate multilateral and/or bilateral framework, mainly by the project partners. Establishment of an "EU-China Centre for Nuclear Education and Training" is also discussed as a future possibility.
4.1.2.2 European Nuclear Education Network (ENEN) Association
As of March 2010 the ENEN Association has 56 members in 18 EU countries, South Africa, Russian Federation, Ukraine and Japan. One of the concepts of this project is to allow all ENEN members to contribute to the project, in particular for the future pilot items for E&T according to the recommendations by the Work Areas ENgineering, Radiation Protection and Waste Management and Disposal. The information provided by the ENEN in terms of E&T courses, Maser program, PhD subjects etc. will also cover those provided by all ENEN members.
4.1.2.3 ENETRAP Consortium
The intended cooperation in the area of Radiation Protection is led by the Belgian Nuclear Research Centre (SCK•CEN) in Mol, Belgium, who is also coordinator of the ENETRAP-II project. The overall objective of this project is to develop European high-quality "reference standards" and good practices for education and training (E&T) in radiation protection, specifically with respect to the Radiation Protection Expert (RPE) and the Radiation Protection Officer (RPO). These "standards" will reflect the needs of the RPE and the RPO in all sectors where ionizing radiation is applied (nuclear industry, medical sector, research, non-nuclear industry).
4.1.2.4 PETRUS Consortium
The intended cooperation in the field of Waste Management and Disposal is led by the Institut National Polytechnique de Lorraine, which is also coordinator of the PETRUS project. The aim of this proposal is to enable present and future professionals on nuclear waste management in Europe, whatever their initial disciplinary background, to follow a training programme on geological disposal, which would be widely recognized across Europe. This ambitious aim will only be achieved over a close collaboration between all stakeholders and through an effective and flexible use of academic and non-academic resources and competences. In addressing the needs of the end-users, access to a combination of education (formal), continuous learning and professional development (non-formal), and on-the-job learning (informal) will be offered and developed within the project. The PETRUS group has developed a structure for addressing education in the field of the geological disposal. The implementation of a high quality education at the Master level together with the training instruments and schemes that will be developed during the project will ensure supplying necessary expertise on the field of radioactive waste management and underground disposal both in quantity and quality. Besides, the project targets the development of a qualification framework (“training passport”) that is in the interest of different end-users and trainees as it facilitates lifelong learning, helps end-users matching skill demand with supply, and guides individuals in their choice of training. Finally, the project aims at networking all the training actors in order to form and foster the “geological disposal training market” in a sustainable way.
4.1.2.5 The organizations involved in the Chinese side project are:
4.1.2.5.1 Tsinghua University (THU)
Tsinghua University was established in 1911. The faculty greatly valued the interaction between Chinese and Western cultures, the sciences and humanities, the ancient and modern. After the founding of the People's Republic of China, the University was molded into a polytechnic institute focusing on engineering in the nationwide restructuring of universities and colleges undertaken in 1952. Since China opened up to the world in 1978, Tsinghua University has developed at a breathtaking pace into a comprehensive research-type university. At present, the university has 14 schools and 56 departments with faculties in science, engineering, humanities, law, medicine, history, philosophy, economics, management, education and art. The University has now over 30,000 students, including undergraduates and graduate students. As one of China’s most renowned universities, Tsinghua has become an important institution for fostering talent and scientific research. The educational philosophy of Tsinghua is to "train students with integrity." There are two organizations in Tsinghua University which are involved in nuclear education. They are the Institute of Nuclear and New Energy Technology (INET) and the Department of Engineering Physics (DEP).
INET was founded in 1960 as a top nuclear education and research base in China. In the last forty years, it has become a comprehensive education and research center with multi-disciplinary research, design and engineering projects mainly in nuclear technology. Since it was founded, INET has set up a twin-core swimming-pool type Experimental Shielding Reactor, a 5MW Nuclear Heating Reactor (NHR-5) and a 10MW High Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactor (HTR-10). INET's nuclear education and research involves a wide spectrum covering nuclear engineering, nuclear safety and radiation protection, nuclear material and fuel cycle, nuclear waste management and so on. There are around 500 faculty and staff members and over 300 graduated students in INET. DEP focuses on undergraduate education and has research programmes on radiation protection, plasma technology and so on.
4.1.2.5.2. North China Electric Power University (NCEPU)
North China Electric Power University (NCEPU), founded in 1958 and designated by the State Council as a key university in China in 1978, is affiliated with the Ministry of Education and officially listed as one of the “211 project” universities. NCEPU is composed of two respective campuses in Beijing and Baoding, with its main campus in Beijing. The Baoding campus covers an area of 40 hectares and the Beijing campus covers an area of 107.27 hectares. NCEPU holds school buildings of 1,000,000 square meters and fixed assets of 2.1 billion RBM, including 0.3 billion RBM allocated to scientific and teaching facilities. NCEPU possesses a high-quality teaching staff with a total number of 1610 professional teachers, including 256 professors, 407 associate professors, and three academicians of the Chinese Academy of Engineering. NCEPU has, at present, more than 38000 full-time students, including 19000 undergraduates and 6300 post-graduates.
The School of Nuclear Science and Engineering of North China Electric Power University was founded in 2007 on the basis of the discipline of Nuclear Science and Nuclear Technology , which was belonged to the School of Energy and Power Engineering. The school is situated in Beijing campus with Professor Lu Daogang as the Dean of the School of Nuclear Science and Engineering, the academician Fang Mingwu as its Honorary Dean and the academician Zhou Yongmao as its Director of Academic Committee. All of the professional teachers have Ph.D and undertake undergraduate and graduate teaching duties as well as engage in research, including scientific projects at the national level from National Natural Science Fund, “863” and “973” national research projects.
The School of Nuclear Science and Engineering is composed of two divisions: Nuclear Science and Nuclear Technology, and Radiation Protection and Environmental Protection. With the completion of the four laboratories: Lab of Nuclear Radiation Measurement and Protection, Lab of Pressurized Water Reactor Nuclear Power Plant Model, Lab of Nuclear Power Plant Safety and Simulation Technology, and High Performance Computing Laboratory of Nuclear Reactor, the school can have more better educational and research resources, creating the good conditions of learning and scientific research for the faculties and students.
4.1.2.5.3. Southwest University of Science and Technology (SWUST)
Lying in Mianyang, Sichuan (a nuclear rich prince), SWUST has 17 schools and one department, covering engineering, science, economics, laws, arts, agriculture, management and education. It awards bachelor’s degree in 65 fields, master’s degree in 34 fields, engineering master’s degree in 5 fields, it also delivers joint doctoral programs in 4 fields with the assistance of China Academy of Engineering Physics. There are about 1600 academics and 400 staff individuals. It accommodates over 26000 students, both domestic and international. SWUST School of Science and Technology offers undergraduate programs in radioactive waste treatment & disposal, radiological protection & environment, nuclear technology & application, and reactor engineering; it also offers engineering master’s program in nuclear energy & engineering. The school takes advantage of 1 ministrially key discipline lab on nuclear waste & environmental safety, and takes active part in international cooperation, paying much more attention to radioactive waste treatment & disposal and network education.
4.1.2.5.4. Harbin Engineering University (HEU)
Harbin Engineering University (HEU) is a national key university, founded in 1953. It is among the first batch of "211 Project" universities. HEU is an important base for talent training and scientific research in the fields of ship industry, ocean exploration and nuclear application. There are now 21000 students at register including 7000 graduate students and 13000 undergraduate students. HEU has 1500 teachers including 300 professors and 400 associate professors.
College of Nuclear Science and Technology (CNST) of HEU was founded on Dec. 12th, 2005, on the basis of the Department of Nuclear Power Plant which was originally founded in 1959.
At present, the CNST has 4 undergraduate specialties: Nuclear Reactor Engineering, Radiation Protection and Environment Engineering, Nuclear Technology, Nuclear Chemical Industry and Fuel Cycle Engineering; and 4 Master Stations: Nuclear Science and Engineering, Radiation Protection and Environment Protection, Nuclear Technology and Application, Nuclear Fuel Cycle and Material.
There are 65 full-time staffs in CNST, including 15 full-time professors, 13 associate professors. CNST invites 12 part-time adjunct professors from other institutes or universities, invites 11 overseas Master Professors through “111” Project.
CNST increased its enrollment number since 2006. Currently, 1244 students are at register in CNST. CNST also undertakes the training tasks for some nuclear power stations. CNST provides two modes of training for China Guangdong Nuclear Power Holding Co. Ltd. (CGNPC).
CNST has a National Defense S&T Innovative Team, a state key discipline Laboratory of Nuclear Safety and Simulation, and a provincial key Laboratory of Radiation Protection.
The College has participated in the whole research and development process of NPP of China and has undertaken more than 50 research projects including many key and special state projects. By far, several research fields have been developed: NPP Operation and Simulation, Nuclear Reactor Thermo-hydraulics, NPP Characteristics, NPP Control and Measurement, NPP Safety and Reliability, Nuclear Reactor Physics.
CNST has been in close contact with schools and research centers both at home and abroad. HEU participates in an IAEA TC project: Enhancing the Capabilities of National Institutes Supporting Nuclear Power Development (CPR4032). CNST is one of the 8 centers in the project, an Upgraded Center for Nuclear Education & Training.
4.1.2.5.5. School of Nuclear Science and Engieering Shanghai Jiao Tong University (SJTU)
Established in 1958, the School of Nuclear Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, is one of the most well known nuclear engineering departments in China. The basic disciplines for student education and training contain the fields such as nuclear power plant systems, nuclear thermal-hydraulics, reactor physics, nuclear safety, radiation protection, nuclear system control and operation and nuclear material. The education and training activities are mainly oriented to the needs of nuclear power related organizations concerning design, construction, operation and research of nuclear power systems.
The School of Nuclear Science and Engineering (SNSE) was established in 2006, including three departments, i.e. Department of Reactor Engineering, Department of Nuclear Material & Fuel, Department of Radiation Protection & Nuclear Technology Application. Five research sections have been set up for various research subjects, i.e. Section of Advanced Nuclear Systems and Safety, Section of Nuclear Thermal-Hydraulics, Section of Reactor Physics, Section of Reactor Structure & Material, Section of Radiation Protection & Environment. The infrastructures, such as an education & training center, experimental facilities and a software platform, have been established. The School is being in charge of and participating in a large number of research projects sponsored by the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST), the Ministry of Education (MOE), by the Shanghai local government and by national and international nuclear industries. The School has set up student summer schools with many famous international universities and sponsored international symposiums.
4.1.2.5.6. China National Nuclear Corporation, Graduate School (CNNC/GS)
With approval of the former Commission of Science, Technology and Industry for National Defense and the Ministry of Education of China, CNNC Graduate School (CNNC/GS) was established in 1985 under China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC), the former Ministry of Nuclear Industry. CNNC/GS aims at education of MA and PhD students and training of high-level technical and management talents in nuclear fields. Up to now, CNNC Graduate School has enrolled over 2300 MA and PhD students and over 2600 technicians needed urgently in the design, construction and safe operation of reactors and nuclear power plants in China. CNNC/GS provides nuclear Education and Training. It is well-equipped with the advanced software and hardware. Supported by China Institute of Atomic Energy (CIAE), CNNC/GS has abundant resource of teachers and a great number of experimental facilities available for student’s experiments and practice. In addition, there have been complete sets of curricula as well as the well-written text books for teaching and training.
4.1.2.5.7. Xi’ an Jiao Tong University (XJTU)
Xi’an Jiaotong University is one of the most important universities in China with the department of nuclear engineering which was established in 1958. The School of Nuclear Science and Technology are devoted to the education and research of Nuclear Engineering. There are two departments in the school, one is the department of Nuclear Engineering and the other is Nuclear Technology and application.
Researchers in the department of Nuclear Engineering devote in research of reactor physics, reactor thermal-hydraulics, reactor safety and control. The research are focused on Chinese commercial nuclear power plant(Qinshan NPP), high temperature gas-cooled reactor(HTR), china advanced research reactor(CARR), integrated reactor, molten salt reactor(MSR), supercritical water-cooled reactor(SCWR), traveling wave reactor(TWR) and other nuclear systems including passive residual heat removal system of AP1000, AC600. More than 20 analysis codes have been developed for the core design, thermal-hydraulics computation and safety simulation of the above advanced reactors. Fundamental research have also been conducted on the heat and flow mechanical behaviors in narrow annular channel, rectangle channel and other type element.
The available research facilities include a high pressure thermal-hydraulic test loop, high performance parallel computation station. Many experimental investigation and numerical simulation have been performed with these facilities. These facilities are also competent for the present investigation of supercritical water test loop under irradiation.
4.1.2.6 Work Plan
Following-up on the structured dialogue established between CAEA, the Chinese funding organization, and Euratom, and preparatory meetings with the Chinese counterparts, the Work plan has been constructed to develop a common ground for cooperation in nuclear education, training and knowledge management. The Work Packages (WP) reflect the different items identified as being the basis for such a common ground of cooperation. In a cascading analysis those items have been deployed into objectives, tasks, deliverables and milestones. The objectives of the Work Packages have been formulated to indicate the pathway to be followed for establishing the basis for cooperation. The different tasks to be implemented for achieving those objectives have been identified and documented in the description of the Work Packages. The progress of each task will be monitored along a series of milestones, leading to a deliverable, which documents the final completion of the task. The structure is intended to be simple and transparent in order to facilitate the monitoring of progress made and its communication to the Chinese counterparts.
As a result of the achievement of all the objectives of the entire project, a sustainable framework of cooperation with China will be established for nuclear Education and Training. The first step is to analyze the present situation and to define the needs and opportunities for cooperation in the long term. This analysis, which is carried out against the background of the current trends and future plans for the use of nuclear energy in the EU and China, will provide the key elements for defining the strategy for the development of the human resources. An extensive survey will be made of the nuclear Education and Training courses, sessions and opportunities in the respective fields of Nuclear Engineering, Radiation Protection and Radioactive Waste Management and Disposal. Candidate courses for student and teacher exchange programmes will be identified and evaluated. A selection will be made for the organization of pilot exchange courses. The pilot courses will be completely designed with respect to technical content, pedagogical aspects, participation modalities, mobility, etc.
Student mobility raises the question of mutual recognition of the courses by the home and the host institutes and the quantification of the course content in terms of the standard curriculum leading to a particular degree. Those questions will be addressed iwith the objective of establishing a framework for mutual recognition of courses in nuclear disciplines between the EU and China and reaching an agreement on the quantification of partial curricula for exchange purposes.
Aan inventory of available nuclear infrastructures, laboratories and equipments for students and teacher exchanges, as well as providing the access modalities and conditions will be establsihed.
The overall management of the project is assured by the ENEN Association, in close cooperation with the Work Package leaders in the Project Committee and with the Chinese counterparts through the EU-Chinese Project Committee.
An important component of the strategy of the Work Plan is of course the installation and operation of good communication channels with the Chinese counterparts to ensure the continuity of the cooperation during the project itself and its sustainability in the long term after the termination of the project. This strategy has already been initiated by participation to important bilateral meetings between the European Commission and the major Chinese organizations involved in education and training in the nuclear disciplines. The presentation of the ENEN Association, its members and its activities has always been on the agenda of those meetings and communication channels have been considerably strengthened with respect to the initial exchanges taking place during technical meetings organized by the International Atomic Energy Agency. Good contacts have therefore already been established and have been maintained during the preparation of this proposal.
4.1.2.7 The Consortium Partners
The consortium partners have been involved in the FP5 ENEN project or in the FP6 NEPTUNO and ENEN-II projects. Five out of eight are members of the ENEN Association, a legal entity established in September 2003 and they have been participating in coordination actions and cooperative projects for more than five years. Frequent contacts, meetings in the framework of the ENEN Association and joint activities, good communication channels, a common web site, student and teacher exchange programmes, and the services of a permanent ENEN Secretariat ensure and support an efficient network and a good perception of the individual capabilities and the strengths of the partners of the consortium. The project partners UPM, SCKCEN, INSTN, KIT, CIRTEN and ICL have a strong background of cooperation with Chinese academia and several staff involved in the project performed studies and research work in Chinese institutes in the early stages of their careers. Combining this experience with their involvement in the ENEN Association, they are in the best position to provide valuable input to a long term vision for cooperation in nuclear education and training with China, they have a good perception and understanding of the needs to be addressed and they can rely on their own personal experience to establish a workable and efficient framework for mobility of students and teachers. Also, they have a tradition of cooperation with Chinese research institutes and the exchange of information and experience. Their interest in and commitment to the project is beyond any doubt and their contribution to the project budget is secure. Therefore the risks of failure with respect to providing the proposed deliverables are very limited if not negligible. The ENEN Association, as a consortium in itself, will rely on its members to step in for specific tasks, for example quality assurance of the deliverables, with great flexibility in the distribution of tasks and associated funding. This flexibility will only require a minimum of administration and will ensure efficient and fast response if necessary.
From the Chinese side a clear commitment of the partners to the project has been observed during the preparatory work in the workshops and meetings. The interaction and response via email is fast and efficient. This mutual interest was again confirmed in an exchange of e-mails between the Chinese Atomic Energy Agency (CAEA) and EURATOM after the workshop in Beijing (March 22-24, 2010) and has been further developed during the meeting with the Secretary General of CAEA, Mr. WANG Yiren on 19 April in Brussels during the visit of 13 Chinese high-level representatives of government and industry. The letter of support by the CAEA for the parallel Chinese project has been received.
Project Results:
4.1.3.1 Needs and Strategies for Long Term Cooperation in Nuclear Engineering
4.1.3.1.1 Framework and Objectives
Nuclear engineering is a multidisciplinary subject, covering nuclear and reactor physics, material science, mechanics and thermalhydraulics, and others important areas as nuclear safety. For both electrical generation and medical or industrial applications, these disciplines will require expertise in nuclear engineering and science, in the next 30 or 40 years from now.
In a long-term horizon nuclear power is going to expand in countries of the EU and in China. Keeping open the nuclear option means an important effort of education and training, maintaining and also increasing the present personnel in both nuclear installations and research organizations. Education, training and knowledge management in nuclear engineering is a matter of worldwide concern in many countries, and it is one of the main objectives of the long-term cooperation between EU and China.
In this collaboration, we will identify and define the needs and strategies of long-term cooperation in the area of nuclear engineering. The roadmap and guidelines of cooperation between the EU and China and finally the items for a pilot student exchange system will be implemented to mutually recognize the credits of the academic nuclear engineering courses.
First, the work has been concentrated on the exchange of information between the EU and China about the current situation of the uses of nuclear energy, and on the existing programs in education and training in nuclear engineering in the universities involved in this cooperation. The focus in the existing programs was on Master courses, PhD subjects and training courses. All this information has been used to prepare a report dedicated to nuclear engineering.
In this sense, the report covers not only the existing information, but also the strategy for exchange students and lecturers, and the sharing of nuclear engineering curricula under the Bologna system. A general definition of certification, qualification, competence passport, and the analysis of the compatibility for futher exchanges of students and lecturers is an important aspect of the framework for long-term cooperation. Finally, the general terms and conditions for pilot experiences have to be defined and implemented, identifying courses of interest, with their number of credits, and their duration. A list of recommendations for the roadmap and the guidelines is provided in section 4.4.
4.1.3.1.2 Current Education &Training Framework in Nuclear Engineering in EU and China
Status of Nuclear Education and Training Programs.
The issue of human resources for the nuclear industry is still very current and vibrant, with multiple facets. Many issues still exist, albeit different from country to country, depending on their specific nuclear programme and situation, and, in particular, new challenges have emerged in relation to an anticipated nuclear revival. In response to these new market conditions, initiatives in nuclear education and training are still developing.
Many studies and major events have been sponsored to analyse national and international activities in education and training and the status and prospects of human resource development (HRD) in the nuclear sector, notably those promoted by the IAEA. These include the report ‘Status and Trends in Nuclear Education’ and the International Conference on Human Resource Development (Abu Dhabi, 14-18 March 2010).
Government initiatives and Strategic Planning
It is clear that a heavy engagement of governments is the key to maintain a nuclear knowledge base. Sustained government support, policies and vision are the most effective means to preserve and grow nuclear knowledge. It is really the responsibility of governments to take ownership of high-risk long-term R&D and to be the main actor in safety, security and safeguards.
Following the significant increased global interest in nuclear energy, many governments have undertaken or encouraged some actions related to nuclear energy. A few have amended their strategic energy plans in respect to their commitment to address nuclear energy issues including education, human resource capacity building and the related infrastructure, in some instances marking a real paradigm shift. There are a few countries, however, where governments have instead maintained a status quo, with little input at the governmental level in regard to the planning for nuclear HR needs. Some examples where positive strategic planning has been undertaken by governments are reported below, as well as few instances where this has been lacking.
In the United Kingdom, after a long period of stagnation, the government published its White Paper ‘The Role of Nuclear Power in a Low Carbon Economy’ in 2007. Inter alia, such policies resulted in the creation of the Office for Nuclear Development and in the roll-out of the regulatory process for new-build. These developments have also provided a framework to allow an integrated HR planning process to emerge.
Similarly, in Sweden, the difficult situation faced by the nuclear sector as a result of the phase-out decision and consequent lack of action by the government in terms of initiatives on nuclear E&T, has significantly changed with the decision early 2009 to allow the replacement of old reactors.
More recently, albeit less vigorously than in the UK, Italy has also taken steps to re-enter the nuclear sector, following a long moratorium that started in 1987. In 2004 a new Energy Law allowed ENEL to establish joint ventures with foreign companies, and, more importantly, a National Energy Strategy was introduced in 2008, which envisaged the new build of nuclear power plants with the target of 25% electricity production from this source by 2030 (equivalent to 8 to 10 new nuclear reactors).
Manpower Assessments
Faced with possible demographic issues in their existing nuclear industries and, increasingly, by the prospect of new nuclear build and the needs to provide adequate human resources, governments have, in many countries, undertaken manpower assessments, whose results have, in some cases, triggered actions to address gaps, e.g. through strategic infrastructure planning and financial support.
In France the government commissioned a study, released in early 2008, to assess the needs in high level nuclear education in terms of the specific skills required, in comparison with the available offers from the education system and its potential deficits. Following this report and its recommendations for universities and engineering schools to coordinate their efforts enabling a significant expansion of the educational offer, a council was set up, in the same year, by the French Minister for Research and Higher Education. Its role is to be an interface between industrial actors, the government and academic and public institutions.The “Conseil des Formations pour l’Energie Nucléaire” (CFEN ), as the Council was renamed in 2010, includes representatives of governmental authorities in education, research and industry, of academic institutions, of principal industrial actors (AREVA, EDF, GDF-SUEZ, ANDRA etc.) and the main nuclear R&D public institutions: the French Atomic Energy Commission (CEA) and the French Technical Safety Organisation, IRSN. Through the examination of research needs, the population of students, the education offer and its adequacy, CFEN advises on the need to open new academic curricula and co-ordinates international student recruitment. This close co-operation has already born fruit with the development of new curricula and a threefold increase in nuclear graduates within a three-year period.
Over the last decade and even prior to the White Paper, the UK government commissioned various important assessments on the manpower status of the nuclear industry; for instance the major ‘Study on Nuclear and Radiological Skills’ conducted in 2002. As one of the principal outcomes of such study, around 2003, the Cogent Sector Skills Council was established to facilitate a demand-led link between government, industry and E&T providers, with the direct involvement of regulators right at the outset of the programme definition. In 2004, the Cogent Sector Skills Council set up a Nuclear Employers Steering Group covering all aspects of workforce planning of the UK nuclear sector. The key role of Cogent has been to undertake in-depth analyses on the needs of the new-build labour market, assessing the shape of the workforce in the nuclear industry, identifying gaps, growth and the need for qualifications. This extensive task culminated in four ‘Renaissance’ reports, two of which were published in 2009 and 2010. The first report provided a comprehensive UK skills panorama of the industry today, whereas the more recent report: ‘Next Generation: Skills for New-Build Nuclear’ identified the likely demand for skills to support the nuclear industry for a specified new-build scenario. The study also defined specific skill sets which, in the absence of mitigating measures for the improvement of their supply capacity, could impact the timely accomplishment of the new build programme. Crucially, a Nuclear Energy Skills Alliance steering group has been set up to oversee the implementation of the ‘Next Generation’ report recommendations and to ensure that strategic and critical skill solutions are managed. Another significant recent report (May 2010) published by Cogent is the ‘Nuclear Skills Oracle 2010’, which provides a snapshot of the industry labour market based on a sizable cross section of employers.
In Italy, in 2006, a formal agreement was set up between the Ministry of Energy, ENEA and the universities to assess future needs for nuclear E&T in collaboration with industries and utilities. More recently, the government has made funds available to ENEA (2009-2011) to undertake a comprehensive review of the estimated skills needed to resource the national nuclear programme, a preliminary draft of which has been issued in May 2010. To satisfy the growing personnel demand, the Italian Ministry for Economic Development, the Ministry for Education and Research, and the Ministry for the Environment are budgeting funds for ENEA and the new ASN (Agenzia per la Sicurezza Nucleare) for man-power development. Financial resources have also been provided to reinforce present nuclear courses and to start new ones.
In the year 2000 the Finnish Ministry of Trade and Industry published a report on “Maintaining Nuclear Competence in Finland”, prepared through the cooperative effort of all nuclear organisations; and in 2001, 2005 and 2008, energy strategies have been released by the Government. The strategies cover climate and energy policy measures in great detail up to 2020, providing a brief outlook for the period thereafter, up to 2050. The Finnish Ministry of Employment and the Economy has also taken actions to foster capacity building in the nuclear sector.
Conversely, difficulties are still persisting in countries where policies to promote or sustain a healthy nuclear programme are absent or decisions on new-build are being deferred, and there has been little input at the governmental level in regard to planning for HR needs. In Switzerland, mainly due to political factors, the strategic energy planning has been strongly in support of renewable energy and energy conservation and this has not assisted the nuclear industry. At the university level, economic pressure has caused a shift of educational programmes away from “classical” fields such as nuclear physics, towards domains which currently appear more attractive to young students (life sciences, nanotechnology, etc.).
In Spain, the government has not set out any strategic energy planning in relation to nuclear energy but, nevertheless, nuclear educational programmes and staff at universities have been preserved, and new large nuclear infrastructures have been created for nuclear science mainly.
In Belgium, the government has committed to keep the three oldest Nuclear Power Plants open for an additional 10 years and is maintaining the scientific and technological potential needed to ensure optimum conditions for safety and performance, stating the need to keep the nuclear option open [Ref. Nuclear Competence Building]. However no strategic actions have been taken in this regard.
In Germany, nuclear power has not been represented as a considered option in the government strategic energy planning for the future, with inevitable impacts on nuclear E&T. Very limited support has been provided by the government for nuclear E&T and only a few programmes have been kept active, with emphasis principally on nuclear safety and waste management. Nonetheless, in spite of such unfavourable political situation and contrary to previous and recent forecasts, over the last years, the number of professors in nuclear education has seen a considerable rise.
Funding for Educational Resources
A number of countries have reported efforts of their governments to support young students R&D and facility modernisation through funding.
In Finland, basic training courses on nuclear safety are sustained by the government, as well as the national research programme. € 47 M was allocated in 2007 to fund nuclear research, primarily in waste management and reactor safety on the ‘Finnish Public Research Programme on Nuclear Power Plant Safety’ – SAFIR.
In Belgium, education and training activities are carried out by academic institutions and by the Belgian nuclear research centre (SCK•CEN), which covers 45% of his turnover directly from a government grant. The government has taken the important decision to keep supporting the MYRRHA project, allocating € 60million funds over 5 years. Prominent international projects such as MYRRHA are attractive for young researchers in the nuclear field.
In the UK, the government provides, indirectly, a significant amount of teaching and research funds to universities. Despite recession-driven reductions, government funds have been committed for 10,000 ring-fenced new places at universities for science, technology, engineering and mathematics provision. With the support of the government and the nuclear industry, the ‘Nuclear Graduates Scheme’ was set up. Hosted by the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (NDA), this is a highly selective, world class nuclear graduate programme, to attract the best of graduate talents to the sector with placement opportunities in the top companies.
Actions by Regulatory Authorities
The nuclear safety authorities have also taken actions, assuming responsibility for issues on national competence in the nuclear sector [Ref. Nuclear Competence Building], especially but not exclusively in those cases where direct government initiatives on E&T have been deficient. Such is the case of Sweden, where, during the difficult years, in co-operation with industry, the Swedish Nuclear Power Inspectorate set up the Swedish Centre for Nuclear Technology (SKC), to ensure that nuclear engineering programmes were not completely abandoned at universities. SKC ensures national coordination, provides base funding for education and research and coordinates joint research projects, aiming at creating strong and internationally recognised research groups within areas which are vital-for and unique-to nuclear technology. It promotes attractive educational programmes, which increase the attraction to enter nuclear technology among students. SKC funds are raised by a tax on utilities.
The Spanish Nuclear Regulatory Body (CSN) has dedicated funds to foster and enhance activities on R&D in nuclear safety and radiation protection and to support Master courses in Nuclear Science and Technology. CSN has also created and sponsored three chairs in two universities.
In Finland the regulatory authority seconds younger staff to other regulatory bodies as part of international training initiatives [Ref. Nuclear Competence Building, NEA 2004].
Educational Networks
.
As regards this recommendation, while [Ref. Nuclear Competence Building] only feeble indications of progress were reported up to 2004, in recent years a veritable spur of educational networks has occurred, at the national and international level, often benefiting from improved technological means such as distant learning. The establishment of such networks and bridges has generally been the result of concerted effort of all stakeholders: governments, through their support and even, in some instances, their drive; academic and research institutes, through the joint promotion and coordination of nuclear education and R&D programmes; and, not last, industry. Industry involvement in nuclear education programmes has occurred through financial aid, by allowing access of industry research facilities to students for exercise and training and by having industry professionals participating in the development and delivery of courses. This also facilitates the transfer of tacit knowledge [Ref. Trends in Nuclear Education, IAEA].
One example of joint efforts to maintain and further develop a high quality programme in nuclear engineering is the Belgian Nuclear Education Network (BNEN) founded with the sponsorship of the Belgian nuclear industries in 2001 by SCK•CEN and five Belgian universities, with a sixth university joining the programme in the academic year 2006-2007. The intent of the programme is to remodel nuclear education in Belgium, catalysing networks between academia, research centres and public utilities. BNEN has instituted the ‘Master after Master’ through the merging of different nuclear programmes into a single programme for holders of a Master degree in Engineering and the government subsidises colloquia to promote it. The course is highly modular and taught in English. The Belgian nuclear industries support the BNEN programme and every two years a stakeholder meeting is organised where representatives from industry, universities and SCK•CEN, convene and work towards the optimisation of the master programme. In addition, three Belgian institutes organise four-year master courses in nuclear technology, medical nuclear techniques and radiochemistry. In 2003 SCK•CEN, XIOS Hogeschool Limburg, Institut supérieur industriel de Bruxelles together with Institut national des radio-éléments joined efforts to start up a Radiation Protection Expert course that gives the qualification of ‘radiation expert’. Beside technical universities, SCK•CEN and the National Institute for Radioelements cooperated to the establishment of a comprehensive nuclear 120-hour programme taught in Dutch and in French and also including European and Belgian regulation and legislation.
In Finland the establishment of the Finnish Nuclear Education Network (FINNEN) has been driven by the government. FINNEN offers several courses at Lappeenranta University and Helsinki University of Technology, with nine lecturers taking part to the programmes and a capacity of 15 students at each institution in the year 2007-2008 [Ref. Nuclear Safety in a Situation of Fading Nuclear Experience, European Commission, May 2009]. In Finland summer training periods in industries are compulsory and students have been able to work with the industry, research institutes and nuclear authorities to prepare their theses.
Another relevant example is the UK Nuclear Technology Education Consortium (NTEC) created between universities and other institutions to provide postgraduate education. At the master level, British universities have preserved existing courses, and introduced new ones, as a result of discussions with the industry and in response to identified needs. At one university, a partnership with the regulatory body and a number of companies has preserved a longstanding nuclear course that would otherwise have closed due to withdrawal of government funding. In addition, raising the profile of research in the nuclear area through the formation of industry-university research alliances, has increased interest in nuclear subjects among undergraduates. The result has been a net increase in the number of students attending existing nuclear options and the introduction of new ones. Many other industry-university consortia have also been created, such as the Nuclear Academic Industry Liaison Seminars (NAILs).
In Italy, the CIRTEN (Consorzio Interuniversitario per la Ricerca Tecnologica Nucleare) founded by the ‘nuclear universities’ in 1994. In addition, the ‘Associazione Nazionale Impiantistica Industriale’ (ANIMP), which plays a role of coordination of industries and utilities involved in the nuclear programme, has set up a working group with universities on nuclear education with the goal to start two new masters in October 2010: one for young graduate engineers and the other for professionals and managers with substantial working experience but not in the nuclear field.
In Switzerland, industry supported the Chair in Nuclear Energy Systems, when the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich decided in 2004 to suppress the Chair in Nuclear Engineering. The Swiss Master of Science in Nuclear Engineering, established in 2008, represents an excellent example of collaboration. This initiative, essentially due to self-generated motivation at the academic level involves the Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI) as national research centre and Swissnuclear, the association of Swiss nuclear utilities. Nuclear industries are actively involved in the Swiss NE Master, also through the provision of lecturers in several courses as well as and industrial internships. In industry has also financed nearly 50% of the R&D needs of the PSI’s Nuclear Energy and Safety (NES) department. A part of the financial support is separately earmarked for PhD students and young scientists.
In Sweden the industry is involved both as sponsors and as contributors with teachers in the delivery of education programmes. Together with the regulatory body, industry contributes to the funding of the Swedish Nuclear Technology Centre in order to ensure that there is adequate financial provision to replace retiring professors [Ref. Nuclear Competence Building]. Although there are no longer research reactors in Swedish universities, students can receive their hands-on training thanks to collaborations with industries and international academic institutions running such facilities. The industrial full-scale reactor simulators are also used for student training. Geographical proximity can also be a catalyser in such situations, with positive repercussions in recruitment and hence student enrolment. All Swedish universities have bilateral collaborations with industries and, typically, the nuclear power plants support the geographically closest university.
In Germany various nuclear educational networks and associations have been established by the industry over the last decade (notably the Southwest German Nuclear R&E Alliance). Collaboration with educational institutions has been strengthened, in particular at PhD level and a new institute for nuclear engineering and fusion technology has recently been created. In particular, the Kompetenzverbund Strahlenforschung was established in 2007 to derive trends in job opportunities in the nuclear sector, to achieve enhanced cooperation between universities and to harmonise national R&D on reactor safety and waste disposal research. A number of universities have formed an alliance of competence in nuclear technology, which has fostered the enhancement of education by coupling with good research, notably in the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT). Scientists from the research centres give lectures in universities. Students are also given the opportunity of conducting internships and theses for diploma or doctoral research at facilities near to their homes.
In France, the industry is highly engaged with training as well as education programmes, funding Chairs in Schools and Universities. AREVA has even sponsored a professorship in Germany. In 2008 EDF allocated € 4M to set up the “Fondation Européenne pour les Energies de demain” in collaboration with the Institut de France to fund education and research in clean energies through financing high education institutions projects and grants to students. The capabilities and experience of the French nuclear industry are also made available in support of the development of international training capacities. In 2008, the French International Nuclear Agency (AFNI) was created within the national nuclear research centre (CEA) to develop government to government partnerships with countries willing to take advantage of French nuclear competence. More recently, during the International Conference on Access to Civil Nuclear Energy , the President of the French Republic announced the creation of an International Institute for Nuclear Energy (I2EN), to constitute a gateway to international applications of French nuclear science and technology education and to vocational training for foreign engineers. The I2EN will develop networks and partnerships worldwide, including through the establishment of a “Centre of Excellence for sustainable nuclear energy” (largely open to new comers) aimed at building a strong culture of safety and security and providing a “Think tank” on the main challenges associated with nuclear energy.
Networks can be a way to pool effort and resources and can play a key role in countries where the need for nuclear experts exists but is not sufficiently large to sustain individual nuclear educational programmes. In these cases amalgamating under subscribed courses is an effective way of preserving nuclear teaching [Ref. Nuclear Competence Building].
In Switzerland, a common degree: the Swiss Master of Science in Nuclear Engineering has been established in 2008 by the two Swiss Federal Institutes of Technology at Lausanne and at Zurich. The Master has registered good success, with some 15 to 20 national and international students attending each year. It represents a “quantum jump” for the country in terms of additional commitment towards education.
4.1.3.1.3 Organizations of nuclear education and training programs.
The general outlook of academic programmes in nuclear education seems to have considerably ameliorated, with some countries manifesting an upturn of the declining trend observed 10 years ago. Sometime stimulated by the prospect of new build, new and advanced nuclear education programmes are being launched, attracting healthier numbers of students, in an increasingly global context.
In Sweden, the nuclear education has now reached a very good state, with a healthy number of students and professors, markedly on the increase. Different education programmes are active in universities at various levels, with numerous academic activities just started or about to start, including the first dedicated programme in nuclear engineering at bachelor level just launched in the autumn of 2010 at Uppsala University. In the autumn 2009, the Chalmers Institute of Technology, in Gothenburg, has started a new nuclear engineering MSc, which will train specialists for the nearby nuclear power plants. Programmes and course contents adopted by different universities are varied, offering distinct specialisations which better satisfy the industry needs and other requirements that may arise within such a multifaceted field as nuclear power. The capacity for education and research is stronger than it has been in many decades, and, although during the coming ten years, 6000 new staff will have to be employed, equivalent in volume to the entire present industry population, it is expected that such demand will be satisfactorily fulfilled. In fact, if maintained, this positive trend could even lead, in a few years, to the formation of a numbers of nuclear engineers which may even slightly exceed current domestic needs, with the prospect of establishing a flow of Swedish professionals to Germany where future workforce shortages may be significant.
The nuclear education system in France is well established and very robust, with first-class comprehensive nuclear and nuclear-related engineering programmes presently provided in more than 30 engineering schools and universities, all over the country, some longstanding, others recently launched. These offer a growing supply capacity estimated, for the year 2009-2010, at approximately 1250 students. Some engineering schools and universities have created new, more specialised programmes, with 2 and 3 – year curricula in safety/security and nuclear engineering.
In Spain, over and above basic, more traditional nuclear subjects, some universities have set up new advanced courses, appealing to students and sought by the sector, such as transmutation, material science, advanced computer codes, nuclear fusion technology etc. Master courses in several universities have been accredited by the National Accreditation Agency (ANECA), which permits to invite professors from other countries to teach advanced courses. In this sense the nuclear education offered by the school of industrial engineers of the Polytechnical University of Madrid has been recently accredited by ABET for a period of five years.
The prospect of new build can stimulate teaching, as is being experienced in the United Kingdom, where the awareness of new opportunities has increased the interest of students. With the restart of a nuclear programme on the horizon, in Italy, new master courses have started: two in the Universities of Bologna (2008) and Genoa (2010), the latter partially founded by the EU. A new international master degree in Nuclear Safety and Security, is to be launched at the University of Pisa (in November 2010), with the collaborative effort of industry, research centres and institutions (e.g. CIRTEN, Ansaldo Nucleare, ITER Consult, etc.). In Finland, one university is currently modifying its curriculum in the light of new reactor build and another has recently separated nuclear power plant technology from power plant technology in order to raise its profile with students.
New Craft and Technical levels are just as important
Whilst satisfying the small but important niche demand for nuclear courses at the higher engineering level is fundamental, adequately addressing the large demand of craft and technical levels from the sector is just as important, in order to maintain and deploy nuclear programmes robustly anchored on strong safety principles as well as good science and engineering.
In this context, in the United Kingdom, universities are providing more nuclear undergraduate modules and working with technical colleges, sometimes franchising courses. In addition, with the Working Higher project, Cogent is supporting the development and roll-out of modular, work-based foundation degrees.
In 2005 the University of Tokyo has established the Professional School of Nuclear Engineering, which awards qualifications such as ‘Nuclear Reactor Supervisor’ and ‘Nuclear Fuel Handling Supervisor’ as well as the Professional Master Degree. A comprehensive curriculum is taught over one year and a total 16 students per year attend the school, mostly sent by nuclear organisations, such as utilities, nuclear facility manufacturers, as well as regulatory bodies.
‘Nuclearisation’ of non-nuclear professionals
Furthermore, courses are also being devised for the ‘nuclearisation’ of non-nuclear professionals. In Sweden a third-year specialisation in nuclear engineering will be added to an existing three-year bachelor-level mechanics engineering education programme to allow students from any technical college or university with mechanical or electrical engineering to complement their knowledge on nuclear technology. In 2009, Uppsala University has started a nuclear engineering specialisation programme which complements a general engineering programme in energy systems.
4.1.3.2 Needs and Strategies for Long Term Cooperation in Radiation Protection
4.1.3.2.1 Framework and Strategies
Radiation protection is a major challenge in the industrial applications of ionising radiation, both nuclear and non-nuclear, as well as in other areas such as the medical and research area. As is the case with all nuclear expertise, there is a trend of a decreasing number of experts in radiation protection due to various reasons. On the other hand, current activities in the nuclear domain are expanding: the nuclear industry faces a so-called "renaissance", high-tech medical examinations based on ionising radiation are increasingly used, and research and non-nuclear industry also make use of a vast number of applications of radioactivity.
Within this perspective, maintaining a high level of competency in radiation protection is crucial to ensure future safe use of ionizing radiation and the development of new technologies in a safe way. Moreover, the perceived growth in the different application fields requires a high-level of understanding of radiation protection in order to protect workers, the public and the environment of the potential risks. A sustainable Education and Training (E&T) infrastructure for radiation protection is an essential component to combat the decline in expertise and to ensure the availability of a high level of radiation protection knowledge which can meet the demands in the future.
In the field of Radiation Protection, an exchange of basic teaching programmes is necessary between EU and China. It is a very positive contribution to initiate those exchanges over the EURATOM and China 2010 collaboration, especially while radiation protection will provide fundamental knowledge into the Chinese nuclear education in radiation safety and radiation protection will be linked to reactor safety as well as nuclear waste management and geological disposal. The following objectives have been formulated:
- Compare the education and training programme between EU and in particular China in high level nuclear engineers in the field of radiation safety and protection including MSc/MEng, PhD, Postdoctoral Research Fellows through Tsinghua and CNNC research Institutions, and graduate schools.
- Keep regular contact with TU’s DEP&INET and CNNC Graduate School to exchange views on education and training programmes. In particularly, exchanges on radiation protection research programmes are initiated for PhD and staff exchanges with EU universities and research organizations such as SCKCEN and CEA/INSTN.
In this project, needs and strategies of long-term cooperation between EU and China in the area of radiation protection are defined.
Within Europe, the concepts of RPE (radiation protection expert) and RPO (radiation protection officer) are an important part within the legal RP framework. The recent developments regarding RPE and RPO, also subject of the ENETRAP-II 7FP, are exchanged and it is analysed if similar concepts are available at both Chinese and EU side. Based on an overview of available Master programmes at universities and research organisations, suggestions are provided for future collaboration programmes for exchange and common developments in radiation protection. From this, topics for pilot sessions are identified, with the aim to serve longstanding relationships between EU and Chinese education and training providers. A strategy for exchange of (Master and PhD) students and lecturers is developed, with an eye to a long-term implementation.
Since the application of ionising radiation is widely spread in different fields, it is of utmost importance to clearly mark the application field(s) that is covered in this project. One possibility would be to focus on the nuclear industry (parts of the nuclear fuel cycle). The identification of the area of interest has to be discussed and should be performed in the first phase of the project, in such a way that it meets the primary needs of the cooperation and that it is feasible within the time frame of the project.
In the framework of the EURATOM CIAE Cooperation, a strong interest was also expressed by the medical sector to cooperate and exchange information and expertise on radiation safety for medical applications of nuclear technologies. As this area is also addressed in the ENETRAP-II project, exchanges might be included, depending on the availability of resources provided by the third parties.
4.1.3.2.1 Current and Future Situation of Radiation Protection
International context
International Atomic Energy Agency
The International Atomic Energy Commission, an entity of the United Nations, published in 1996 an International Basic Safety Standard for Protection against Ionizing Radiation and for the Safety of Radiation Sources. This International Basic Safety Standardi (IAEA BSS) was jointly sponsored by FAO, IAEA, ILO, OECD/NEA, PAHO and the WHO, and is considered to contain the overall regulatory structure of radiation protection for all IAEA Member States. In the International Basic Safety Standard, special notice is given to the qualified expert, which needs to be identified and made available for providing advice on the observance of the (IAEA) Standards.
The qualified expert is defined according to the IAEA BSS as:
An individual who, by virtue of certification by appropriate boards or societies, professional licences or academic qualifications and experience, is duly recognized as having expertise in a relevant field of specialization, e.g. medical physics, radiation protection, occupational health, fire safety, quality assurance or any relevant engineering or safety specialty.
Responsibilities in radiation protection are also given to a radiation protection officer. This person is defined according to the IAEA Glossaryii as:
An individual technically competent in radiation protection matters relevant for a given type of practice who is designated by the registrant or licensee to oversee the application of the requirements of these Regulations.
The IAEA provides a lot of training material in radiation protection on it's website http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Training. Particular attention should be given to the IAEA Standard Syllabus of the Postgraduate Educational Course in Radiation Protection and the Safety of Radiation Sources (PGECiii course, published in 2002), a comprehensive training programme aimed at training young professionals at graduate level or the equivalent for initial training to acquire a sound basis in radiation protection and safety of radiation sources.
International Radiation Protection Association
The International Radiation Protection Association is a cooperation between all radiation protection societies throughout the world, and provides a medium for all those engaged in radiation protection activities. Within IRPA, a workgroup is focused on Education and Training. Next to the organisation of refresher courses with are provided at each IRPA congress, this workgroup also elaborated a definition on the Radiation Protection Expert which was adopted by the International Labour Organization (ILO).
The ILO established in 1957 the first International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO). ISCO is a tool for organizing jobs into a clearly defined set of groups according to the tasks and duties undertaken in the job. This classification is periodically revised and updated. In the last classification, ISCO-08, ILO has included a new Unit Group in which the RPE is given as an example of registered occupations: ISCO-08 Definitions.
In context with the ISCO-08 classification of the RPE the IRPA elaborated the following definition (approved by the Executive Council in August 2004):
An RPE is a person having education and/or experience equivalent to a graduate or masters degree from an accredited college or university in radiation protection, radiation safety, biology, chemistry, engineering, physics or a closely related physical or biological science; and who has acquired competence in radiation protection, by virtue of special studies, training and practical experience. Such special studies and training must have been sufficient in the above sciences to provide the understanding, ability and competency to:
– anticipate and recognize the interactions of radiation with matter and to understand the effects of radiation on people, animals and the environment;
– evaluate, on the basis of training and experience and with the aid of quantitative measurement techniques, the magnitude of radiological factors in terms of their ability to impair human health and well-being and damage to the environment;
– develop and implement, on the basis of training and experience, methods to prevent, eliminate, control, or reduce radiation exposure to workers, patients, the public and the environment.
In most countries the competence of radiation protection experts needs to be recognized by the competent authority in order for these professionals to be eligible to undertake certain defined radiation protection responsibilities. The process of recognition may involve formal certification, accreditation, registration, etc.
European Union
Although almost every country in the EU is an official Member State of the IAEA, they need to follow the European legislation in radiation protection. The regulatory framework and its implementation in Europe is explained in the following paragraphs.
Radiation protection in Europe is mainly based on the regulation regarding ionising radiation. The most important references are:
1. Council Directive 96/29/Euratomiv of 13 May 1996 laying down basic safety standards for the protection of the health of the workers and the general public against the dangers arising from ionising radiation. (EU BSS or European Basic Safety Standard)
2. Council Directive 97/43/Euratomv of 30 June 1997 on health protection of individuals against the dangers of ionizing radiation in relation to medical exposure (EU MED or European Medical Exposure directive).
Each EU Member State is obliged to transpose these (binding) directives into national legislation. Anno 2012, nearly all EU Member States have implemented their own national legislation in radiation protection, based on these 2 directives (amongst other EU directives). Non-EU Countries like Switzerland and Norway have adopted similar legislation. An official communication in the context of education and training in radiation protection is Communication 98/C 133/03vi, which describes the basic and additional training requirements for qualified experts. This is a reference document, which is not binding for EU Member States but which assists in transposing the European Council Directive into national law.
Although there is a close cooperation between the European Commission and the IAEA, these European directives slightly differ from the International Basic Safety Standard. They mainly adopt the general system and principles of the ICRP recommendations of 1990 (ICRP N°60vii). These directives have been transposed on a national level in each EU member state, providing the same framework of radiation protection in each EU country, but with different implementation in practice.
In 2007 a voluntary association was created which brings together 49 radiation protection Authorities from 31 European countries: HERCA (Heads of European Radiological Competent Authorities). This association is working around topics generally covered by provisions of the EURATOM Treaty. The programme of work of HERCA is based on common interest in significant regulatory issues.
Only the content and implementation of the EU BSS with respect to education and training in radiation protection will be discussed hereafter. For the general framework of radiation protection in Europe, we refer to the relevant documents (EU BSSiv, ICRPvii).
General requirements on education in radiation protection
Article 22 of the EU BSSiv (Information and training) requires each member state to arrange relevant training in the field of radiation protection to be given to exposed workers, apprentices and students.
Article 7 of the EU MEDv (training) requires member states to ensure that (medical) practitioners, workers2 and medical physics experts (MPE, see 2.1.3) have adequate theoretical and practical training for the purpose of radiological practices, as well as relevant competence in radiation protection.
According to the directive, member states are required to establish appropriate curricula and recognize the corresponding diplomas, certificates or formal qualifications. Member states are also required to ensure that continuing education and training after qualification is provided and, in the special case of the clinical use of new techniques, the organization of training related to these techniques and the relevant radiation protection requirements. In the same article (7) it is mentioned that member states are required to encourage the introduction of a course on radiation protection in the basic curriculum of medical and dental schools. In 2000, the European Commission published a guidance document (Radiation Protection 116)viii for the implementation of the articles of the Medical Exposure Directive mentioned above.
Qualified expert
The EU BSSiv defines a Qualified Experts (in radiation protection) as: Persons having the knowledge and training needed to carry out physical, technical or radiochemical tests enabling doses to be assessed, and to give advice in order to ensure effective protection of individuals and the correct operation of protective equipment, whose capacity to act as a qualified expert is recognized by the competent authorities. A qualified expert may be assigned the technical responsibility for the tasks of radiation protection of workers and members of the public.
The medical physics expert is mainly held responsible for the radiation protection of patients. According to article 6.3 (Procedures), a medical physics expert shall be involved and/or available in radiotherapeutic practices, (diagnostic and therapeutical) nuclear medicine practices and in diagnostic radiology. Tasks attributed to this expert are, amongst others, optimization of the medical exposure including patient dosimetry; quality assurance including quality control; and to give advice on matters relating to radiation protection concerning medical exposure.
Future of radiation protection legislation
Revision and recast of the EU regulation in radiation protection
The European Directives mentioned above are, amongst other Directives, currently under revision and recast with two main objectives: (1) a revision of the 96/29/Euratom directiveiv (BSS), and (2) a consolidation of the existing EU radiation protection legislation. Different EU legislation relevant to the radiation protection system are being consolidated:
- BSS 96/29/Euratomiv
- Medical Exposure 97/43/Euratomv
- Public Information 89/618/Euratomx
- Outside workers 90/641/Euratomxi
- Control of high-activity sealed sources and orphan sources 2003/122/Euratomxii
- Radon 90/143/Euratom (recommendation)xiii
At the time of the project, a draft of this consolidated EU regulation was available on the website of the European Commission (the last version xiv available from 30 May 2012). The final version has been adopted on December 5, 2013 and published in January 2014 by the European Commission. The Directive is not expected to be transposed in the Member States until 2014 / 2015, because of the complexity of the subject matter.The requirements for radiation protection education, training and information are provided in chapter IV, article 15 to 19.
From Qualified expert to RPE and RPO
The EU BSS 96/29 now describes different types of experts in radiation protection. The concept of the qualified expert has been replaced by the concept of a Radiation Protection Expert (RPE) and a Radiation Protection Officer (RPO), mainly due to the input of the results of the FP6 ENETRAP project and the establishment of the EUTERP network4 (see further), who contributed to the advice submitted to the European Commission and the Group of Experts according to art 31 of the EURATOM Treaty. Meanwhile, a new 3 year EC project has started in 2009 (FP7 ENETRAP II), which aims to develop European high-quality "reference standards" and good practices for education and training (E&T) in radiation protection (RP), specifically with respect to the RPE and the RPO. The introduction of a radiation protection training passport as a means to facilitate efficient and transparent European mutual recognition is another ultimate deliverable of this project.
The Radiation Protection Expert is defined in the text as: an individual having the knowledge, training and experience needed to give radiation protection advice in order to ensure effective protection of individuals, whose capacity to act is recognized by the competent authorities.
The Radiation Protection Officer is defined as: an individual technically competent in radiation protection matters relevant for a given type of practice who is designated by the undertaking to oversee the implementation of the radiation protection arrangements of the undertaking.
Article 84 of the currently available draft Directive describes the duties and competency of the radiation protection expert.
The radiation protection expert shall, on the basis of professional judgment, measurements and assessments, give competent advice to the undertaking on matters relating to occupational exposure and public exposure.
The advice of the radiation protection expert shall cover, but not be limited to, the following:
(a) plans for new installations and the acceptance into service of new or modified radiation sources in relation to any engineering controls, design features, safety features and warning devices relevant to radiation protection;
(b) the categorisation of controlled and supervised areas;
(c) the classification of workers;
(d) the content of workplace and individual monitoring programmes;
(e) the appropriate radiation monitoring instrumentation to be used;
(f) the appropriate methods of personal dosimetry;
(g) the optimisation and establishment of appropriate dose constraints,
(h) quality assurance;
(i) the environmental monitoring programme;
(j) radioactive waste disposal requirements;
(k) the arrangements for prevention of accidents and incidents;
(l) preparedness and response in emergency exposure situations;
(m) training and retraining programmes for exposed workers.
Where appropriate, the task of the radiation protection expert may be carried out by a group of specialists who together have the necessary expertise. Article 32 of the Directive describes the obliged consultations with the radiation protection expert:
Member States shall require the undertaking to consult a radiation protection expert on the examination and testing of protective devices and measuring instruments, in particular for:
(a) prior critical examination of plans for installations from the point of view of radiation protection;
(b) the acceptance into service of new or modified radiation sources from the point of view of radiation protection;
(c) regular checking of the effectiveness of protective devices and techniques;
(d) regular calibration of measuring instruments and regular checking that they are serviceable and correctly used.
Article 86 of the Directive describes the duties and competency of the radiation protection officer.
Member States shall decide in which practices the designation of a radiation protection officer is necessary to perform radiation protection tasks within an undertaking. Member States shall require undertakings to provide the radiation protection officers with the means necessary for them to carry out their duties. The radiation protection officer shall report directly to the undertaking.
Depending on the nature of the practice, the tasks of the radiation protection officer may include the following:
(a) ensuring that work with radiation is carried out in accordance with the requirements of any specified procedures or local rules;
(b) supervise implementation of the programme for workplace monitoring;
(c) maintaining adequate records of radioactive sources;
(d) carrying out periodic assessments of the condition of the relevant safety and warning systems;
(e) supervise implementation of the personal monitoring programme;
(f) supervise implementation of the health surveillance programme;
(g) providing new employees with an introduction to local rules and procedures;
(h) giving advice and comments on work plans;
(i) authorising work plans;
(j) providing reports to the local management;
(k) participating in the arrangements for prevention, preparedness and response for emergency exposure situations;
(l) liaising with the radiation protection expert.
The task of the radiation protection officer may be carried out by a radiation protection unit established within an undertaking.
Education and training of medical professionals
In 2011, a project called MEDRAPET6 started with the aim to improve the implementation of the Medical Exposure Directive provisions related to radiation protection education and training of medical professionals in the EU Member States. After the conduct of a EU-wide study on radiation protection training of medical professionals in the EU Member States, a European workshop was organised in April 2012, which will provide input for a European Guidance document on radiation protection training of medical professionals. This guidance document will be considered to be the update of the Radiation Protection document N° 116viii.
Medical physics expert involvement
Although the concept remains valid, the definition of the Medical Physics Expert (MPE) has slightly been adapted in the Directive EU BSS/96/29: an individual having the knowledge, training and experience to act or give advice on matters relating to radiation physics applied to medical exposure, whose competence to act is recognized by the competent authorities.
Article 85 of the Directive describes the duties and competence of the medical physics expert:
Within the health care environment, the medical physics expert shall, as appropriate, act or give specialist advice on matters relating to radiation physics as applied to medical exposure.
Depending on the medical radiological practice, the medical physics expert shall take responsibility for dosimetry, including physical measurements for evaluation of the dose delivered to the patient, give advice on medical radiological equipment, and contribute in particular to the following:
(a) optimisation of the radiation protection of patients and other individuals subjected to medical exposure, including the application and use of diagnostic reference levels;
(b) the definition and performance of quality assurance of the medical radiological equipment;
(c) the preparation of technical specifications for medical radiological equipment and installation design;
(d) the surveillance of the medical radiological installations with regard to radiation protection;
(e) the selection of equipment required to perform radiation protection measurements;
(f) the training of practitioners and other staff in relevant aspects of radiation protection.
Where appropriate, the task of the medical physics expert may be carried out by a medical physics service.
The current draft Directive describes in art. 57 (procedures) the involvement of the medical physics expert in medical radiological practices:
In medical radiological practices, a medical physics expert shall be appropriately involved, the level of involvement being commensurate with the radiological risk posed by the practice. In particular:
(a) in radiotherapeutic practices other than standardised therapeutic nuclear medicine practices, a medical physics expert shall be closely involved;
(b) in standardised therapeutical nuclear medicine practices as well as in radiodiagnostic and interventional radiology practices, a medical physics expert shall be involved;
(c) for other simple radiodiagnostic procedures, a medical physics expert shall be involved, as appropriate, for consultation and advice on matters relating to radiation protection concerning medical exposure.
Currently, a project of the European Commission (Medical Physics Projectxv) is running concerning the implementation of the provisions of the Medical Exposures Directive MEDv (97/43/Euratom) and the future Revised Recast Euratom Basic Safety Standards Directivexiv (to be adopted) relating to the Medical Physics Expert (MPE) and to facilitate the harmonisation of the role, education and training of the MPE among the member states of the European Union.
Summary
The education and training in radiation protection is mainly based on the European legislation, with a distinction to the medical exposure. This legislation is currently under revision. Due to the different implementation of the European legislation, many projects have been executed or are in progress to harmonise the framework of education and training in radiation protection.
Current E&T Framework in Radiation Protection in the European Union
As previously explained, the Education & Training framework in radiation protection in EU is focused on its regulatory requirements. Although in principle the framework is the same in Europe, the implementation in each EU member state is different. In 2002 a large survey initiated by the European Commission showed that the national education and training programmes for experts showed often large differences in content, duration, level, the introduction of practical work, etc. The results of this survey were published in 2003 in the document Radiation Protection 133ix, and served as a basis to start up the ENETRAP project.
Concerning education and training, the survey from EC RP 133 showed the following conclusions:
- In most cases, and both for EU Member States and Applicant Countries, a prior education on an academic level is needed for the training of the RPE, certainly for the medical and the nuclear sector.
- In the majority of the countries, training course is given at universities, but other training centres do occur. Training programmes address in most cases the topics mentioned in the basic Syllabus (of the EC Communication). If a distinction in experts is made according to the sector of work, only part of the topics might be addressed.
- Training centres need to be recognised by the authorities in many countries, but sometimes this is only necessary in certain sectors, such as the medical sector.
- Professional experience is a criterion for recognition in many countries, but not in all. The space of time varies considerably, from zero to several years and depending on the sector of work.
- In most of countries there is input, or feedback, from the users of ionising radiation (such as employers, unions, professional bodies) with regard to the needs and efficiency of the education and training program. This input, or feedback, is not always formalised.
E&T in Radiation Protection in China
According to the information obtained by Guogang Ren (UH), a common curriculum in education and training programmes in nuclear engineering, radiation safety and protection is shared between 5 to 10 Chinese Universities (Tsinghua, Shanghai Jiaotong, Xian Jiaotong and others). Tsinghua University is the leading university in the field and supported by China’s Ministry of Energy, Ministry of Education (MoE), Ministry of Science and Technology (MoST) and China National Nuclear Corporation. (CNNC).
A translation of the Curriculum of the MSc Postgraduate Student Radiation Protection Education of the Tsinghua University, Department of Engineering Physics and Institute of Nuclear and New Energy Technology has been obtained from Guogang Ren.
MSc Postgraduate Student Radiation Protection Education for Department of Engineering Physics and Institute of Nuclear and New Energy Technology, Tsinghua University - Nuclear Science and Technology 082700.
The following field and specialties are covered:
－Nuclear Science and Technology: Grade I Programme, Applied Science;
－Nuclear Energy Science and Engineering: Grade II Programme, designed for nuclear reactor physics, reactor engineering and safety, fission and plasma physics research direction;
-Nuclear Technology and Applications: Grade II Programme, designed for radiation technology and applications, nuclear electronics and nuclear detecting technology, accelerator physics and application research directions;
－Nuclear Fuel, Fuel Cycling and Materials: Grade II Programme, designed for nuclear materials, isotope separations, nuclear chemistry, chemical engineering directions;
-Radiation Protection and Environment: Grade II Programme, designed for Radiation measurement, radiation detection, radiation shielding, radiation biological interaction, radiation safety control, evaluation research directions;
－Medical Physics and Engineering (Grade II Programme, suitable for medical physics, biomedical engineering, radiation imaging, radiation cure and recovery and nuclear Medicine, etc.)
Module arrangements
1.Degree modules ( Not less than 24 credits)
1.1 Public/social modules (>5 credits)
Natural Philosophy - 2 credits
Socialism and modern world - 1 credit
English - 2 credits
1.2 Fundamental Theory Modules (not less than 4 credits)
Data analysis A - 4 credits
Applied possibility/opportunity process - 4 credits
Mathematics - 4 credits
1.3 Specialty modules (not less that 13 credits)
Radiation and environmental protection
(a) Group A (not less than 6 credits)
Environmental Earth Chemistry - 3 credits
Radiation Safety and measurement - 3 credits
Porous media contamination substance immigration dynamics - 2 credits
Solid waste reuse or recycle engineering - 2 credits
Solid waste control engineering - 2 credits
Environmental risk analysis - 2 credits
Monte-Carlo methodology application in nuclear engineering - 3 credits
Spectrum analysis - 2 credits
Introduction of nuclear reactors - 3 credits
Radiation quantity and measurement - 2 credits
Ionic radiation detection Science and technology - 3 credits
Energy and resource management - 3 credits
Radiation molecular biology - 2 credits
Environment and radiation - 2 credits
Physics for high level health - 3 credits
(b) Group B
Software engineering, technology and design - 3 credits
Mini-computer system connection technology - 3 credits
Environmental fluidic mechanics - 3 credits
Aerosol and Colloid mechanics - 2 credits
Air contamination and protection principles - 2 credits
Advanced water treatment engineering - 2 credits
Computer control theory and applications - 3 credits
Nuclear reactor engineering and safety - 3 credits
Applied nuclear technology - 3 credits
Radiation technology and environmental protection - 2 credits
Energy and environments - 2 credits
Advances in accelerators - 3 credits
Modern radiation, detection and measurement - 2 credits
Other modules or programme selection based on supervisors recommendations
(4) Projects / Presentations seminar activities ( no less than 2 credits )
Literature survey and project selection & decision making - 1 credit
Attending seminars and research activities and exchange - 1 credits
Selective modules (Optional)
In order to obtain the general knowledge, students can select following modules optionally based on the advices from supervisors:
(1) Selecting other Grade I modules;
(2) Human and culture, social science, management type modules.
1) Self studies of programs or modules
2) Supplementary for those students coming from a 1st degrees degree which is a non-nuclear
Requirement for publications (Journal papers and research achievements during MSc studies)
All MSc students are asked to publish at least 1 paper in their specialty journal relevant to his or her studies. Student supervisor is required to produce a verification proof on the journal’s academic level and sign on the paper. All this will need to be approved by the sub-radiation protection committee.
The specification referring to “MSc student study degree requirement on publications”.
MSc Degree Thesis requirement
1) MSc degree thesis is the best reflections of student learning outcome university teaching outcome and，the degree thesis must be accomplished by student themselves under the guidance of university supervisors.
2) Every MSc degree thesis is a complete systematic academic document/paper/article towards assigned research / investigation target(s) with renewed research concepts or ideas. Therefore, the degree thesis has to provide new data and new conclusions showing student’s knowledge level on the learned academic fields by applying learned knowledge on to the research subjects. The thesis will give demonstration that the students have mustered a solid base of fundamental theory and specialized knowledge that bestowed students work capability independently on the studied field on scientific research or on assigned special technical works.
3) The period of research (from starting the project to finishing or hand-in the MSc thesis) generally is over one year. Meanwhile, according to “MSc recommendations on improving student study and training efficiency” (Tsinghua Research student act [2004] 6 Edition), MSc students should be allowed to enter into their research as early as possible within their studying period of 2 years.
4.1.3.3 Needs and Strategies for Long Term Cooperation in Radioactive Waste Management and Disposal
4.1.3.3.1 Framework and Strategies
One of the biggest obstacles facing the nuclear industry is what to do with the nuclear waste generated in the form of spent fuel discharged from reactors or in the form of high-level waste originating from the treatment of the spent fuel. Although scientific community recommends the geological disposal as the preferred solution for the long term isolation of radioactive waste, such facilities do not exist yet. Knowing that building and operating a disposal facility takes several decades, maintaining human resources with high scientific quality and improving skills and knowledge appear as a considerable challenge at national and international level.
Obviously, ensuring short term and long term availability of necessary expertise and competences in radioactive waste disposal is a common interest of both China and European Union member states. Thereby, developing practical ways to cooperate in this issue notably through the exchange of teachers, trainers, students and courses would be beneficial for significantly enhance the both side capacity.
As a first step towards this cooperation the settlement of a strategy is required for identification and prioritization of needs, specification of long-term objectives and optimization in the use of the shared resources. The process must start by completing the mutual awareness in the current situation of education and training in geological disposal of radioactive waste and future planned programmes in this field through exchange of information between EU and Chinese partners.
The inventory of existing educational and training opportunities available in each side (e.g. Master courses, PhD subjects, professional training courses) and the methodology used for the evaluation and validation of the learning outcomes would be the second steps of this cooperation. In this frame the European partners have already performed advanced works within the FP7 PETRUS II project which is dedicated to the continuation, renewal and improvement of the professional skills in the field of radioactive waste disposal. This project aims at building suitable frameworks for implementing and delivering sustainable education and training programmes by mobilizing resources from a strong partnership between European waste management agencies, academia and private training providers.
Finally, based on the results of the two previous works, the EU and Chinese teams have to build together a rational cooperation programme for the development of human resources and knowledge through implementation of a common framework for education and training, joint agreements and exchange in policy issues. It is important to notice that the settlement of this framework must fundamentally lean on the comparability of the education and training programmes rather than harmonization or standardization. Thereby the bottom up approach must be the synergetic process that governs the cooperation initiatives at the both sides.
The provision of support not only from the academia but from all stakeholders (e.g. research centers, industry, regulator,…) and the establishment of a strong coordination at both Chinese and EU sides assuring continuous exchange of information are central to the success of this endeavor. Besides, the organization of at least three technical meetings as well as the attendance of Chinese colleagues as observers in the PETRUS meetings is highly desirable.
The professorship for "Technology and Management for the Decommissioning of Nuclear Facilities" at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) focuses on the development of new practical related decommissioning technologies and automation techniques, tools and machines for the use in nuclear facilities.
In this regard techniques for the decontamination of surfaces, the separation of steel and reinforced concrete by means of remote-controlled appliances as well as the separation of austenitic materials under water are elaborated for example.
Furthermore a research project regarding techniques for the fully automatic decontamination of the inside of pipes is under development. The decontamination will be processed without discharge of harmful substances or chips into the pipes.
The research centrally focuses on the minimization of nuclear radiation which the personnel working in power plants is exposed to. In the course of another research project different ways will be analyzed soon that allow to store radioactive waste as long as necessary until it can be released as uncontaminated material. In this regard, appropriate containments and buildings are researched for different concepts that ensure the safe entombment of radioactive waste. There is no adequate tertiary education available worldwide, which covers the entire complex of problems dealing with decommissioning and final disposal by suitable processes and methods of management. However, high demands will accrue regarding the decommissioning of nuclear facilities within the following years. Thus, a sufficient number of excellently skilled engineers for decommissioning will be compulsory, not only for the economy but also for the protection of the environment in particular. In order to meet the growing demand engineers are to be trained well-directed to the mentioned set of problems, in a major field of study, at the KIT.
In this regard the following topics are scheduled
- Processes for decontamination and disassembling
- Workshop dealing with decontamination and disassembling
- Field reports about current decommissioning activities at nuclear facilities
- On-site project seminars
- Development of new technologies for decommissioning
Through the existing know-how of our department and its associated contacts we will conduct a pan-European appraisal of all continuing education available in the field of “WASTE MANAGEMENT AND DISPOSAL”, including information about relevant educational requirements and arising expenses as well as information about the infrastructure and equipment of the particular school, university or program. The appraisal will cover all levels ranging from engineer to bachelor and master. Besides that not only public institutions but also private institutions will be considered. Furthermore it will be scrutinized which dissertations in the field of “WASTE MANAGEMENT AND DISPOSAL” are already available, in order to offer topics for dissertations that concentrate on the uncovered issues and that will provide a benefit on either side, the Chinese as well as the European.
4.1.3.3.2 Education in Radioactive Waste Management and Disposal in the European Union.
Education and Training (E&T) in Geological Disposal has become a focal point in the waste management community in the beginning of this century. Several initiatives were started to strengthen both the national and international opportunities for Education and Training. Such initiatives include: the IAEA URF network of excellence “Training in and demonstration of waste disposal technologies in underground research facilities”; the foundation of the ITC School association in 2003; the study made in the CETRAD project funded by the FP6 of the European Commission, during 2004-2005 on available resources and needs in E&T in geological disposal and the formulation of the PETRUS Project for planning a modular curriculum in geological disposal.
The CETRAD project findings were that there are training needs and also offering in training available in Europe, but this offering is very fractured consisting of small individual training courses with a limited duration and often in national languages. Majority of the universities provide the topic only as a part of a course.
Practical works on E&T in radioactive waste disposal started with the launch of the PETRUS initiative. The project is based on the fact that assembling the critical mass in terms of students, teachers and facilities for launching academic educational programme on radioactive waste disposal is beyond the capability of any European individual university. Therefore, European universities must rely on collaborative effort to meet the challenge. Although Inter-university collaboration is the first key action for supplying the requirement for sound curricula, specific difficulties arise however when considering Master’s level programmes on radioactive waste disposal. Indeed, initiative in this field covers several disciplines; thereby building a joint degree programme becomes highly complex in terms of content and implementation. Coordination is especially challenging when compatibility criteria between different programmes that belong to different disciplines has to be established. In terms of organisation, a joint degree programme in this field cannot be supported by any collaborative structure since the existence of distinct boundaries between disciplines establishes distinct institutional frameworks for each speciality, avoiding shared responsibility on quality and content of the programmes between institutions. Indeed, higher education systems in European countries are very diverse, and even within each country incompatibility is not to be excluded. In this frame, building an educational programme in radioactive waste disposal that can be mutually recognised is more a matter of complementarity rather than standardization of curricula, diploma or institutions’ practices. The model that is most desired and considered most feasible is that which does not require all institutions to conform to a particular model. The general consensus is to build a reference structure that can be fitted into existing systems without jeopardising institutions’ diversity and identity. The key issues in building educational programme in radioactive waste disposal as a result of such a European harmonisation are generally perceived as follows:
1. Students in different locations must receive the same quality of education regardless of higher education institutions
2. Graduates from one country must have the possibility and capability to be recruited in other countries
3. Close collaboration at European level between universities and large involvement of future employers are needed in creating and developing the adequate educational programme.
4. The educational programme must fulfil Bologna process requirements.
The implementation of the harmonisation idea is not without challenges. Steps should be taken in order to increase student readiness. Barriers to language and communication must be overcome and there should be serious efforts to reduce constraints that are very “national” in nature. In view of the vast diversity in disciplines but also differences in the institutions’ structure, and the relatively small number of students that will be concerned by the programme, the creation of a single curriculum fitting all aspects of the radioactive waste disposal is insurmountable. Thereby, the PETRUS project found that the most feasible solution is to create a common set of courses that could be integrated to the existent curricula in different disciplines in geo-science. The main objectives of these courses should be to provide students with an extensive range of skills across the disciplines. The goal is not to teach exhaustively all concepts to all students, but to provide them with a necessary foundation where they can teach themselves what is needed during their professional life or their future academic research in this expending multidisciplinary area.
4.1.3.3.3 The PETRUS solution
Taking into account the requirement of the most national accreditation systems, the Bologna process and also the ENEN recommendations, the objective of the PETRUS has been the creation of a Master’s programme representing at least 60 ECTS. To reach this goal, PETRUS leans at first on the existing Master’s programmes in different geo-science disciplines. Indeed, even if these programmes are not explicitly dedicated to the nuclear issues, they encompass the main courses that bring the most fundamental scientific and technical knowledge needed in the field of geological disposal. For instance, the mechanisms of creation of the damaged zone during the excavation of a drift (EDZ) are generally a part of the “drilling course” taught in Mining Engineering at the Master’s level. Regarding the radioactive waste disposal, investigating the EDZ is of primary importance for the concept of the disposal since it may provide enhanced permeability pathways for radionuclide migration. The selected standard courses are completed by specific “Common Courses” in radioactive waste disposal. The particularity of these courses is that they can be followed by all of the students whatever be their initial disciplinary background. Figure 2 shows the schematic concept of the programme. Therefore, the first step in building the programme consists in selecting standard courses taught in different disciplines, which can be identified as having a direct link with the geological disposal. At least 30 ECTS will be selected in each existing Master’s programme. To achieve this aim, the partners audit themselves and determine the courses available in different existing Master’s programmes in different allied disciplines that can contribute to the expected content of the educational programme. The second phase corresponds to the creation of "common courses" where specific topics related to the geological disposal are introduced. The idea is to share the best competencies by pooling and mobilising necessary resources available in universities, research institutions nuclear waste management agencies and nuclear industries. These common courses (i.e. same courses shared by all the partner institutions) will represent at least 10 ECTS and must encompass 3 kinds of lectures:
(i) General lectures for giving a broad perspective of the different European approaches in the field of radioactive waste disposal.
(ii) Advanced lectures basically aiming at deepening and enlarging students’ scientific knowledge notably on the methodology and mathematical tools used in the safety assessment practices in radioactive waste disposal.
(iii) Technical lectures for familiarizing students with the practical and operational aspects.
Since these courses are common to all the participating institutions, an integrated teaching platform is needed to ensure that students will receive the same quality of education at the same time. The “face to face remote teaching” will be used to achieve this goal. This methodology introduces a form of virtual mobility, increasing the opportunities for nonmobile students to benefit from teaching delivered at a distance so that physical mobility is no longer the only way of ensuring that students could participate in classes and lectures given by academics in other countries.
A Master thesis or a final dissertation on geological disposal subjects representing at least 20 ECTS will complete the programme. The main advantage of the proposed solution is that the adjustment problems particularly with respect to instructional practices, curriculum incomparability, and cultural diversity are considerably mitigated. Indeed, recognition problems can be rooted in the fact that “foreign” courses may not be quality-checked by the “home” university. As it was stated by the EUA “the absence of trans-national quality assurance procedures lets persist some doubt about the comparability of the content, study time and admission requirements of the “foreign” programmes or even about the proficiency of the staff involved in the provision of the courses”. Therefore, for the same qualification title the profile and level of the qualification can be perceived differently from one country to another. The proposed solution avoids this kind of problems since it leans on the structure of the “home” Master’s programme in each institution. In other words, all the components of the degree belong to the national system and then meet the appropriate national quality standards. Thereby, no trans-national rules and complex procedures are needed; mutual trust and confidence in the responsible application of the local quality procedures is enough to establish cooperation between institutions.
The part of the programme that needs strong understanding between the partners and joint control is the “common courses”. This deals with a set of “new” courses that are jointly developed by the PETRUS partners. As these courses are common to all participating institutions, the main constraint is that they must be ranked at the same level of accreditation; in other words each university has to award each component with the same number of ECTS by applying its own quality procedure. However, overcoming this constraint is not too hard since the partner institutions have to work out these new courses collectively and then the agreement on the learning objectives, workload and core content must be found beforehand and not a posteriori. The proposed solution allows also compatibility with both Bologna process and ENEN recommendations. The total of 60 ECTS is reached by adding the corresponding credit numbers of the three parts of the programme. With regard to the ENEN requirement for completing at least 20 ECTS abroad, a sound solution can be found through the third part of the programme that corresponds to the presentation of a Master thesis after a training period. PETRUS students will be incited to complete this training period abroad either in a university laboratory or in a workplace. Academic and non-academic partners offer research work subjects that are dispatched among students in order to favour their mobility. Embedding the common courses into the existing Master ptogrammes enlarges students’ job options and avoids the danger of graduates’ inflation beyond the ability of the radioactive waste job-market to absorb them. Of course, the size, structure and content of the common courses are flexible and can be modified to be fitted to the real demand. This adjustment is highly facilitated by the involvement of both academic and non- academic partners in the definition of the programme. Finally the PETRUS solution allows launching a harmonised educational programme in radioactive waste disposal at the European level by sharing the best human resources and pedagogic materials available in partner institutions but without jeopardising their internal rules or their national commitments.
4.1.3.3.4 Overview of Education and Research in China.
In China a quarter of an age group has already access to higher education and the objective is to reach 45% by 2020. The number of Chinese students currently represents over 20% of all students in the world. Massification in higher education in China was decided in the late eighties. It constituted a historic turning point in a country in which the selection of elites was made through highly formatted competition and consolidated by a university organization based on USSR model. The reform was also accompanied by an increase in the duration of studies, compatible with the European countries. More than 10 million students are now enrolled in long four years bachelor’s degree (benke) while the proportion of those enrolled in short degree (zhuanke) decreases. The number of diplomas issued in “benke” is around two million, but there are only four hundred thousand students admitted in Master’s degree among them only sixty thousands are allowed to continue in PhD. This rapid development has led to difficulties in the ability of the higher education system to provide teachers and researchers needed to educate these new students.
A second important factor is the influence of the educated diaspora and in particular the North American diaspora that began to play important role at the state level, pointing out the need for high level research at university while the old Soviet model set aside this role exclusively to the Academy of Sciences. China has set up in the mid-eighties a major reform of its higher education system by delegating several decisional powers to the institutions themselves. This jeopardized massively organizational and budgetary constraints in universities used to working in the frame of Soviet centralism way. It was then mandatory to diversify institutions funding and increase their budgets to avoid a race to the bottom. This movement has found its application in the middle of 90s and in 1998 the Law on Higher Education stipulated that all universities should get the status of a legal person on the day of their accreditation which gave them considerable autonomy, although the weight of political control by the party remained significant. The authority of the Communist Party is still very strong, especially in the appointment of universities’ presidents, but in more than hundred universities decisions were decentralized at the local or regional level. The external control tends to fade gradually and focus on managerial aspects leaving more room for academic bodies with regard to the specific activities of teaching and research as well as proposals for recruitment and promotion. The universities were encouraged to expand activities and contract research projects with the business community, social organizations and other private sectors.
At the same time the number of students increased very sharply. In 1995 Chinese families were invited to participate to the education costs of their children. The amount of tuition is now set by the provincial governments, the average cost ranging around 450 euros today, but can reach up to 5,000 euros, according to the French Embassy. However, the Chinese government's 2020 plan for higher education and research advocates for equality for all in the access to education but doesn’t explain how the contradiction with the establishment of large tuition fees at the expense of families can be solved.
Despite mergers of institutions intended to give new universities additional flexibility, the number of universities has increased. There are currently more than two thousand seven hundred institutions of higher education with nearly two thousand public universities, and hundreds of private schools status. To maintain a solid core of academic activities two programmes called programme 985 and program 211 were launched in 1995 followed by an increase in academic scientific publications vastly superior to changes in general publications of the country. This phenomenon is certainly not exclusive to China and other countries like Spain, Australia or France that have raised their university’s research have seen improvement in terms of number of publications however, the ratio is much greater in China and somehow in Brazil than in most of the other countries, bringing about the efficiency of the investment.
Universities’ ranking whether domestic or international are carefully scrutinized in China. For Chinese government this serves as a main indicator for universities effective governance. The changing role of Chinese universities in the Shanghaï2 ranking valid somehow this strategy. In 2003 six of them were classified in the first four hundred universities in the world, they are now twelve.
The low share of state resources devoted to higher education (in 2007 China spent 3.32% of its GDP on education) is no longer enough to support this rapid development. Despite being in continuous rise in absolute terms, since the mid-90s the contribution of the state or provincial governments to the universities’ budget has been declining steadily to reach currently less than 40%. The difference was offset by tuition, by income generated by the universities themselves called to establish private subsidiaries, and by research contracts and provision of various services to public agencies and private firms. Today, families contribute more than a third to university funding. The industrial sector contributes only marginally.
The massification has on the other hand led to put under question the entrance examination to the university (gaokao) which is less and less seen as sesame to find a social position. Only a third of the universities are authorized to issue “benke” (4 years diploma), and only a hundred institutions, selected by the 211 and 985 programs, are authorized to issue a doctorate. In addition, because of the diversification, quality of schools became uneven. Families who can afford the costs and have not found a place in the top-rated institutions prefer to send their children to study abroad rather than at universities of mediocre level. Thus, at present more than five hundred thousand Chinese are studying abroad. Their admission will be made to extremely diverse procedures. The Anglo-Saxon universities, in particular, do not require success in “gaokao” because they have their own selection systems. For the Chinese candidates reasonable choices is often linked with the foreign university ranking. The selection of students for Chinese universities refers mainly to local rankings but also take into account international rankings basically based on research activities (ie. the Shanghai ranking but also Taïwan4 and SCImago5).
Half of Chinese students in France are registered in Bachelor’s degree. Germany accepts Chinese students only for Master’s degree and higher while the UK has a market approach since like Canada fees paid by foreign students are much higher than those paid by nationals. Language seems to not be an important problem for Chinese students in scientific PhD as English is widely spoken in the laboratory but it is still important for lower degrees. Another important factor in the evolution of Chinese university system was the rise of the North American diaspora in the Chinese system of research. This diaspora has gradually resumed contact with the mother country in the late 80s and it is not uncommon today to meet Chinese high level researchers with dual positions at an American university and a Chinese laboratory in Beijing or Shanghai. The return to China of very large number of researchers trained in the United States or in Western Europe shows clearly that the Chinese academic plan is successful and become the dominant pattern. The shift of research activities from the Academy of Sciences to Chinese universities is obvious as it is the evolution chart of Chinese universities scientific publications compared to the other countries.
Traditionally cooperation with China passed through International Research Group (GDRI) or international laboratories where various western research organizations were almost exclusive partners of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. But the recent development of the International Laboratory Associates (LIA) in which universities have a more pronounced role is likely the signal of a transfer of responsibility from Chinese Research Academy of Sciences to universities and should be instrumental in the future for inter-university cooperation. Today, the need for strengthening research cooperation in fundamental sciences on a more balanced basis and especially its extension to disciplines related to nuclear power is obvious. The number of common scientific papers produced with USA is three times more than with European Countries. The 2007-2013 Strategic Report of the European Union for China underlines that the majority of actions undertaken up to now have produced only unilateral benefit. The report stresses the need to promote considerations of mutual benefit in future and promotes increase of coordination between member states that are mainly prioritized bilateral relationship in the past. In this new context, academic cooperation needs to be rethought at European level and new initiatives should emerge. Many European programs towards China should be better utilized and valued not only in the benefit of the Chinese partners but also with tangible added value for Europeans.
4.1.3.3.5 Higher Education in China
The general higher education comprises both colleges of general education and technical and vocational colleges providing training for adults. These latter are however limited to 2 or 3 years study degrees. The admission from a cycle to the next is done in principle on the basis of competition. The school year is divided into two semesters; it includes from 38 to 40 weeks of classes by level and 13 to 10 weeks of vacation and holidays. The Chinese university system has undergone profound changes since the early 80s. It is currently characterized by a high degree of decentralization; most universities are managed and funded by local authorities. Only 10% of schools still report directly to the central ministries such as the Ministry of Education. Private education is also experiencing strong growth. It follows very significant differences in teaching capacity and quality of equipment depending on the region and the status of the university. China's education policy is focused mainly on research and internationalization.
For Chinese students, the university entrance exam, the Gaokao, is held every year in the final year of secondary study. According to their results students can have access to a particular level of institutions.
There are generally three cycles of study:
The first cycle covers:
i) short professional studies in two years (dazhuan)
ii) general and vocational studies in three years (dazhuan) and
iii) general studies in four years (Benke) .
The second cycle corresponds to the master’s degree and comprises three years studies after Benke (Shuoshi). Access is through competitive exams.
The third cycle, that is to say the doctorate (Boshi) is also accessible only through competition after the master’s degree and encompasses at least three years of study. A very small number of students are admitted and the delivery of degree is reserved to the most prestigious establishments.
4.1.3.3.6 Radioactive Waste Management in China
As early as 1985, China has chosen the deep geological disposal as the main direction to address the high level radioactive waste issue. By the end of 2010, 13 reactor units were in operation in China with a total capacity of over 10 GW, discharging a total of about 300 tHM of spent fuel annually. In 2009, the National Energy Board readjusted the 2020 target to 70GW of installed capacity and the total amount of spent fuel generated to 138,000 tHM. China has also chosen the reprocessing track and solidification of waste in vitrified glass in order to minimise the quantity of ultimate high level radioactive waste (HLW) waste to dispose.
Chinese activities on nuclear facilities decommissioning start at the end of 1980’s. At present, decommissioning of some uranium mining and milling facilities and nuclear application facilities have been finished and decommissioning of some research reactors and nuclear fuel cycle facilities is being planned or undergone. The decommissioning of some laboratories and testing installations have been finished, such as radiochemical laboratory in Dalian Institute of Applied technology under China National Nuclear Corporation, nuclear chemical engineering laboratory at Tianjin University, etc, and the wastes generated have been removed in interim storage facilities. Other installations like micro neutron source reactor at Shanghai Institute of Measurement and Testing Technology, and heavy water research reactor in China Institute of Atomic Energy, is preparing for decommissioning. Radioactive waste management facilities in China include waste treatment, on-site storage, provincial storage and disposal. Each NPP has on-site storage facility. There are some treatment facilities of incineration, solidification, and compaction. The provincial storage facilities are designed for interim storage of radioactive wastes arising from nuclear applications. Currently, there are 25 such facilities in China. Two near-surface disposals for low and intermediate-level radioactive waste are already built up, one located near the Daya Bay nuclear power plant in Beilong with a capacity of 80,000m3, another located in the North-West in Lanzhou but not yet operational. A 3-step plan has been designed to implement the HLW disposal program. The first step, from 2006 to 2020 is devoted to the basic study and disposal site selection including the construction of an underground laboratory.
From 2020 to 2040 specific in situ R&D, design and feasibility studies in underground laboratory are expected constituting the second phase of the plan. Finally the third step deals with the construction of the repository so as the high-level radioactive waste should be disposed from 2050. From the organisational point of view this plan seems rather complicated. The project is placed under conjoint authority of the Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP) and National Nuclear Safety Administration (NNSA). China Atomic Energy Agency (CAEA) is in charge of the project control and financial management. China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC) deals with implementation. Four CNNC subsidiaries act as key players: Beijing Research Institute of Uranium Geology (BRIUG) for site investigation and evaluation, China Institute of Atomic Energy (CIAE) for radionuclide migration studies and China Institute for Radiation Protection (CIRP) for safety assessment. Besides, China Nuclear Power Engineering Company (CNPE) and Chinese Academy of Sciences plus several universities are officially involved in the engineering and research aspects. Regarding potential disposal site, preliminary study showed that Beishan in Gansu Province situated in the Gobi desert, has integral crust structure, stable geological conditions and favourable hydrological conditions that constitute promising proprieties for HLW disposal repository. The topography of the area is characterized by flatter Gobi and small hills with elevations ranging between 1 400 and 2 000 m above the sea level. The crust in the area is a block structure, with the crust thickness of 47 to 50 km. The sub-surface granite having good integrity can be considered as the potential host rock.
4.1.3.3.7 Barriers in cooperation with China
Activities at European level focus mainly on cooperation in traditional academic education. Indeed, high level vocational education is nearly inexistent in China. Despite of government declarations this sector is marked by low investment; inadequate quality of teachers; lack of relationship with the workplace; and low levels of pedagogical considerations. Although number of Memorandums of Understanding set the policy framework for the scientific cooperation, the trust issue continues to rumble through China-EU relations, reflecting a “vicious cycle” (Jian 2009), in which a lack of mutual trust stands out as the most obvious obstacle to the partnership. European universities’ distrust has grown in recent years. Indeed, several tens of Chinese students enrolled in European research laboratories have been accused of espionages not to mention the recurrent problems of plagiarism and illicit copying of the layout-designs. This is clearly shown by Pew Global Attitudes Survey (PGAS) that measures the percentage of China’s “favourability” trend in different European countries. Other points are more linked with the structure and the organization of the studies. While in China, curricula remain strongly focused on subject-specific knowledge, in Europe, most countries are undergone reforms which had for main goal to emphasis the role of competence development in curricula as opposed to the mere accumulation of subject-specific knowledge. European efforts are directed towards competences that graduates are expected to have developed upon completion. These competences also increasingly integrate transversal and soft skills which are rather neglected in Chinese higher education. Similarly, the assessment methods in China are largely focused on evaluating students’ knowledge using predominantly written examination format. In Europe, oral examinations but also group assignments and project work are a common practice in many higher education institutions.Beyond the curriculum, the type of teaching is another difference that must be mentioned. The traditional lecturing style remains the predominant teaching mode in China. In Europe, there is a growing awareness that this mode of teaching, even if it remains prevalent, needs to be supplemented with other forms of learning activities such as practical workshops, discussion sessions, case-study, group assignments, mentoring etc. The idea is to favor more constructivist approach of knowledge development whereby learners generate knowledge through interaction and according to experience and concepts that they have already mastered instead to passing teachers’ knowledge to students who should reproduce it. In line with these differences in basic principles, teaching staff in China sometimes consider that the European approach to learning is inefficient as students spend time discovering that what the teacher said was true. This partly explains why Chinese students have very well developed memorization strategies and rapidly work out solutions to problems they have encountered in the past by reproducing the learnt pattern, while European students have a stronger capacity to react to unknown solutions but are less good at knowing many things by heart. Several recent surveys show that modification of teaching behaviour is not always welcomed by the Chinese teaching staff nor by the students who, used to the traditional lecturing-examination routine, prefer to follow the pattern that they are familiar with.
The cooperation is also impeded by the complex structure of the decision making in China and the number of actors involving in. The chart below shows different strata in the organization of the Chinese R&D system. The main difficulties arise from the presence of both horizontal and vertical parallel independent institutions in this scheme which complicate the effective application of any agreements. Although EU and China have over 50 sectorial working groups, many agreements and joint initiatives have not yet been able to guarantee real partnership and concrete cooperation has remained at a low level.
Finally, due to the large student base, huge contrast exists in teaching practice between Europe and China. Class discussion and project group teaching model seem to be not suitable for engineering education in China. Despite of these barriers, several cooperation programmes on E&T in nuclear field have been launched in recent years; most of them are related to the nuclear engineering. The agreements however are not concluded at the European level but concern basically bilateral arrangements between Chinese government and consortia of national universities supported by domestic industries.
4.1.3.3.8 Proposal for E&T Cooperation in Radioactive Waste Management and Disposal
When considering how to develop sustainable and concrete value in radioactive waste management and disposal E&T cooperation with China it appears that customized approach focusing on strategically important thematic areas with user and technology-oriented perspective is needed. Indeed, there is a need to identify areas where interests between EU and China are mutual and where they can be aligned to produce complementary expertise and capabilities leveraged. It is worth pointing out that both parties have a solid experience in research activities. For instance the Beijing Research Institute of Uranium Geology (BRIUG) founded in 1959, involves in performing on-site geological surveys identifying appropriate locations for uranium mines and nuclear waste storage, as well as conducting research in analytical laboratories. The figure below shows the organisation of the research activities in China. On the other hand both parties have also teaching capacities in this field even if the necessary resources are not concentrated and offering is fractured consisting of individual training courses with a limited duration.
Considering the barriers mentioned above, cooperation would be more cost-efficient and time-efficient if based on the already existing structures and agreements that can give the right pattern for building new and long-term basis academic relations. On The other hand investment in cooperation would be less risky if E&T activities are part of larger academic consortium. An example of such initiative can be found through PANACEA Erasmus Mundus Action 2 project funded by the European Commission. This project aims the setup of academic and staff mobility between universities from Asia including China with European universities. All the study levels are foreseen in the frame of this project (Undergraduate, Master, Doctorate, Post-doc and Staff). The consortium is composed of 10 European universities and 10 Asian universities. All partner universities of the consortium offer study programmes and training in different fields linked with research laboratories recognized in these fields. PANACEA programme began on July the 15th 2012 is planned for 48 months.
Other examples in the specific area of nuclear science can be found through bilateral cooperation agreements notably with French institutions. The Nuclear Engineering and Technology program was established in April, 2005. The First Nuclear Engineering and Technology class, 28 students, and the first “Nuclear Power Talents Order (senior)” class opened in September, 2005, and the Thermal Energy master program (nuclear power oriented) started at the same time. The School of Nuclear Science and Engineering has already educated 120 nuclear engineering graduates. The Sino-French Institute of Nuclear Engineering and Technology (IFCEN) was created in 2010 in Zhuhai, as a partnership between the Sun Yat Sen University for the Chinese side, and a consortium of several French institutions including the Grenoble National Polytechnic Institute (Grenoble INP) the INSTN, the Ecole des Mines in Nantes, the National School of Chemistry in Montpellier, and the National School of Chemistry in Paris. The funding is equally divided between the Chinese and French partners. The education at IFCEN works on the principle of the French “Grandes Ecoles”, or engineering school consisting in three years of intensive study in maths and physics, and three years of engineering school. The programme also includes R&D activity attached to the training.
Unfortunately, there is no specific agreement concerning E&T in radioactive waste management and disposal. Such cooperation programme can possibly be considered with several Chinese leading universities such as Southwest University of Science and Technology (SWUST）that is a multi-disciplinary university with 60 years of education located in Mianyang Sichuan Province. The university is under the administration of both the State Commission of Science Technology and Industry for National Defense and the Sichuan Provincial People’s government. It is one of 14 key universities receiving State’s special support. The university has 2,300 staff including 1,600 teachers, one academician of the Chinese Engineering Academy and 600 associate professors. Studies on radioactive waste are part of curriculum taught. Other possible actors are the School of Nuclear Science and Technology (SNST) jointly founded by University of Science and Technology of China (USTC) and Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences (HFCAS) but also the Beijing Research Institute of Uranium Geology (BRIUG). Provision in European side can be assured by the PETRUS consortium.
The areas of common interest could be education and training in:
• Reliable prediction of the behaviour and evolution of a repository site;
• Characterisation of deep geological environment;
• Thermo-hydro-mechanical and chemical behaviour of engineered and natural barriers ,
• Transfer of radionuclides under coupling conditions (temperature, in-situ stress, hydraulic, chemical, biological and radiation process, etc.);
• Geochemical behaviour of transuranic radionuclides
• Safety assessment and performance assessment of the disposal system.
However, several key questions have to be addressed before the emergence of real and effective collaboration. The first one is how to create a win-win situation? In other words how both parties would take benefit from this partnership? China is looking for world-class partners based on their own national needs. While the Chinese official position is that the “China hopes to learn from European teaching methods and acquire extra knowledge about how to handle radioactive waste disposal projects”, the European interest in such partnership is not very clear. Educating and training future Chinese decision makers can facilitate the business strategy and partnerships but regarding the present economic competition between EU members such argument is more effective at individual country level than at European level. The rationale could be found in another aspect of the expected partnerships. Indeed, China’s strong economic growth rates and its massive investment in the nuclear field can help to boost research in Europe and thereby increase interest in the development of E&T. This added value however cannot be gained without formal commitment from the Chinese side to bring substantial contribution in terms of budget and material means.
Another problem is liked with the size of the country, the number of actors, and the level at which the execution of an agreement obtained with a local university or institution can be guaranteed. Even though a great degree of autonomy is gained by the local Chinese institutions in the recent years, the decision for international collaboration often belongs to the central government. The situation of the present ECNET project bears out the difficulty for European institutions to understand the decision making process in China and to the value given to an agreement. Therefore, before formulating a concrete project it is important to have a good view of Chinese structure and governance system since decision power often lies with actors not directly involving in the discussions.
Finally, problems related to the recognition of academic degrees and comparability of programmes’ contents have to be overcame. Indeed, different legal provisions affect the operation and growth of the collaborative efforts. While European countries have been working to promote QA standards and harmonization mechanisms related to their higher education systems, these efforts are still at an early stage in China. As at the present stage of development, education in radioactive waste disposal is more matter of delivery of set of courses than the obtainment of a degree, the recognition of the ECTS instrument by Chinese universities could be a good progress towards the establishment of a real cooperation.
To seek an effective cooperation in E&T in radioactive waste disposal with China, a step by step approach is recommended.
• Analyse existing models of bilateral and/or European cooperation notably in the field of nuclear engineering and evaluate the experience with these models. A substantial number of collaborations are already under way among which several French programs. Experience gained from these activities can be captured and shared. The information and case study materials could be used as reference material for assessing the feasibility of collaboration and avoiding mistakes in collaborative arrangements among universities.
• Assess what is the added value of E&T collaboration in radioactive waste disposal and how can it be strengthened; identify and define what kind of structures and measures are needed. For receiving updated views a large number of meetings, interviews and discussions must be conducted among European higher education leaders (e.g. PETRUS consortium) and Chinese homologues. There is a need to identify areas where interests are mutual, complementary expertise and capabilities exist and delivery capacity is effective. These include for instance i) Strategic research areas, ii) knowledge and capacity building, iii) teaching and research methodologies, iv) large scale utilisation of Information and Communication Technologies.
• Establish joint education and research agenda; create processes and tools to share lectures and set up networks programme. Being a part of international networks offers unique opportunities for student exchange, scholarships and research collaboration. This can be carried out for instance through the ENEN structure.
• Plan and implement a set of common courses. This can be a first step towards concrete cooperation between Chinese and European universities. Obviously, these courses have to be tested both in quality and in outcomes. Several pilot tests are needed before incorporating effectively these courses in the final curricula.
• Organize student and staff exchanges. Agreement can be established with aim of undertaking part of teaching and research activity in the partner institutions. The short-term visit of doctoral students in order to do some scientific work with a faculty member of the partner institution can be envisaged.
• Organize short training programme. The target is the enhancement of the young researchers’ capability in tackling complex topics related to radioactive waste disposal that is by nature a cross-disciplinary issue. This can be performed by organizing scientific event such as summer schools.
• Particular attention must be given to validation of credits acquired from the courses followed in the host University. For this purpose, several agreements must be signed by the two parties including financial terms. In the learning agreement more detailed information concerning the courses and notably the number of ECTS must be reported. Actual attendance and the amount of the Credit earned (both local and converted to the home system) must be recorded in an “Evaluation Certificate”. The validity of this document must be first agreed by both sides through an official agreement.
4.1.3.3 9 Conclusion
Establishing Education and Training cooperation in radioactive waste disposal between European and Chinese universities is a challenging task. Although such partnerships present several advantages for both sides, many difficulties due to factors including administrative steps and lack of clarity in methods and objectives exist that need to be overcame. Therefore, preparatory works are needed in order to develop a program that provides exchanges that are "safe" for students and beneficial to the participating academic institutions. The first step is to verify the interest of other universities in setting up programs for courses, students and staff exchanges. We suggest starting with establishment of a shared operational protocol, describing the objectives of cooperation, financial resources requirements and administrative arrangements. The protocol should also include documents useful to the student and staff mobility. Lesson learned from the past and on-going collaborations in other sectors of activities can be the basis for the establishment of such protocol.
4.1.3.4 Mutual Recognition of Credit Systems in the European Union and in China
4.1.3.4.1 Framework and Strateies
In order to enhance mobility of students in nuclear sciences between China and Europe, it is of paramount importance to establish a common recognition of the crediting system to evaluate student’s work. In Europe, universities are now settling on the Bologna crediting system. At a preliminary stage, an assessment of previous experiences on mobility of nuclear engineering students between European universities and China should be carried out, to evidence positive aspects and shortcomings. It would be advisable also to draw a clear picture of existing institutional frameworks (common degrees, exchange programs, bilateral agreements and so forth) that are already active in the field of nuclear and energy-related engineering programs at the master and doctorate levels. This step would allow to gain some understanding of possible strengths and weaknesses in the process and to get indications for future effective actions. Consequently, possible common development lines in the field of nuclear education should be investigated and discussed. The main objective of the following step is to establish a common document in which European and China Universities agree on a recognized crediting system. A workshop should give the opportunity to present the outcome of the work and to address issues and solutions. The details of the exchange programs should also be defined in the workshop. These programs might be set up in the frame of already existing collaborations or on the basis of newly established agreements. An important issue would be to find resources in support of the action. A possible (incomplete) list of tasks and objectives is following:
- organize the mobility of master students for sets of courses on specialized topics, either for a full semester or for a shorter period;
- organize the mobility of master students for carrying out the final thesis work;
- assess the possibility to extend the organization of joint programs (master and PhD level) beyond existing frameworks and to harmonize these activities on the basis of common shared principles on the evaluation of the curriculum;
- organize summer schools or similar activities on specific topics (previous experiences are available, e.g. in Asia Link programs);
- organize mobility of lecturers and identify topics and areas on which this activity could take place in the short time scale (e.g. within this program).
The availability of experimental facilities may be an important aspect in the exchange program, in view of the importance in education programs of the possibility for students to get involved in some experimentation. The experience gained would constitute the basis of the recommendations for future longer time-scale collaborations and activities. In the following sections some specific experiences in student exchanges are reported and discussed to show that effective possibilities to initiate an exchange program exist and could be pursued and developed in the future. Some highlights of difficulties encountered in the implementation are illustrated.
4.1.3.4.2 Examples of Previous Exchange Experiences between European and Chinese Universities
Most European universities have been signing formal agreements with counterparts in China in the past years. Several agreements are proving to be quite effective for student exchanges. Politecnico di Torino is one of the leading technical universities in Italy, with a master degree program in nuclear engineering. This university is taken as an example to prove the feasibility of student exchange programs with China. However, several similar projects involving different universities in Europe exist at present. In the CIRTEN Italian consortium, both Politecnico di Milano and the University of Bologna have signed important agreements with various universities in China. Also these existing agreements could serve as a basis for future developments in the field of nuclear engineering. The cooperation between Politecnico di Torino and Chinese institutes has led to signing thirty-four general agreements, as follows. All the information below has been kindly provided by the International Office of Politecnico di Torino.
Southeast University, signed on 07/09/2005
Shanghai Normal University, signed on 05/09/2005
Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications (BUPT), signed on 7/10/2005
Tongji University, signed on 05/12/2005
Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, signed on 12/05/2006
Xi'ian Jiaotong University (XJTU), signed on 13/05/2006
Luoyang Technology College, signed on 11/05/2006
Henan University of Science and Technology, signed on 11/05/2006
Wuhan University of Technology, signed on 15/05/2006
Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), signed on 20/09/2006
Harbin Institute of Technology, signed on 14/09/2007
Kunming University of Science and Technology (KUST), signed on 16/04/2008
Chongqing University of Post and Telecommunications, signed on 21/04/2008
Qingdao University of Science and Technology, signed on 22/04/2008
Beijing Jiaotong University, signed on 23/07/2008
Hefei University, signed on 09/10/2008
Henan University of Technology, signed on 06/11/2008
Tianjin University, signed on 06/11/2008
Shanghai Jiao Tong University, signed on 22/05/2009
Tsinghua University, signed on 25/05/2009
South China University of Technology, signed on 24/09/2009
Tianjin University, signed on 03/09/2009
Southeast University, Nanjing, signed on 25/09/2009
Henan Polytechnic University, signed on 26/09/2009
Henan University of Technology (HAUT), Zhengzhou, signed on 19/10/2009
Beijing Institute of Technology, signed on 27/04/2010
Pontes Foundation Program, signed on 15/05/2010
Southwest University of Science and Technology (SWUST), signed on 02/06/2010
Beihang University, signed on 14/06/2010
Henan University of Technology (HAUT), signed on 06/09/2010
The Department of Education of the Henan Province, signed on 06/09/2010
Inner Mongolia University of Technology, signed on 08/10/2010
Beijing Institute of Technology, signed on 13/04/2011
Hunan University, signed on 23/06/2011
Furthermore, 13 agreements for granting double degree and agreements on student exchange exist at present, as follows:
Taiyuan University of Science and technology, signed on 25/09/2006
Tongji University, signed on 26/10/2006
Xi'ian Jiaotong University, signed on 20/11/2006
Shanghai Jiaotong University, signed on 10/12/2006
Southeast University, Nanjing, signed on 21/05/2007
Tongji University, signed on 14/11/2007
Harbin Institute of Technology, signed on 19/05/2009
South China University of Technology, signed on 03/11/2009
Henan University of Technology, signed on 4/06/2010
Kunming University of Science and Technology, signed on 19/10/2010
Luoyang Institute of Technolgy, signed on 21/10/2010
Henan Polytechnic University, signed on 28/10/2010
Beihang University, signed on 05/07/2011
Five agreements have been signed for the establishment of a campus at Politecnico di Torino. The “Campus” constitutes a reference point within the premises of Politecnico di Torino for the students coming from five Chinese Universities (listed below). It acts as a platform of the five Chinese Universities for the development of joint activities with Politecnico di Torino.
Xi’ian Jiaotong University, signed on 18/02/2009
Tongji University Shanghai, signed on 19/05/2009
Harbin Institute of Technology, signed on 19/05/2009
Tianjin University, signed on 03/09/2009
Southeast University of Nanjing, signed on 22/09/2009
In 2005 an agreement between the Minister of Education of the People' s Republic of China and the Minister of Education, University and Research of the Republic of Italy was concluded in order to establish the Sino Italian Campus in Shanghai. The Campus, which started operating in September 2006, evolved from a collaboration of the Politecnico di Torino, the Politecnico di Milano and the Tongji University of Shanghai and established three joint degree courses, stipulated by a commission consisting of Italian and Chinese professors from all three universities. From the academic year 2007/2008 Politecnico di Torino participates at the CSC (Chinese Scholarship Council) program, established in 2007 by China Scholarship Council, a non-profit institution entrusted by the Chinese Government to manage the State Scholarship Fund. This Postgraduate Scholarship Program aims to improve the training of distinguished postgraduates and enhance the development of China’s higher education. CSC sponsors each year up to six thousand talented Chinese students for overseas study, pursuing doctoral degrees and 2+3 years master of Science plus PhD long term degrees. The selection of admitted students in the framework of the CSC program is based on a meritocratic evaluation conducted by an internal commission from the Politecnico di Torino.
All CSC scholarship winners are exempted from tuition fee payments, which corresponds to 2400 € each academic year.
Partner Universities involved:
• Harbin Institute of Technology (HIT)
• Southeast University of Nanjing (SEU)
• Tongji University, Shanghai
• Beijing Institute of Technology (BIT)
• Tianjin University
• Xi’an Jiaotong University (XJTU)
• Zhengzhou university
• Beijing University of Post and Telecommunication
• Beihang University (BUUA)
• South China University of Technology of Guangzhou (SCUT)
• Shandong University of Jinan
Chinese students attending the CSC program at Politecnico di Torino:
2008-09: 34 PhD students, 11 Master of Science + PhD students
2009-10: 20 PhD students, 11 Master of Science + PhD students
2010-11: 20 PhD students, 17 Master of Science + PhD students
2011-12: 8 PhD+ 11 Master of Science + PhD students
2012-13: 1 PhD student
Starting from the academic year 2010-11 Politecnico di Torino promotes the CSC program among Italian students: four students from Politecnico di Torino has been selected to attend the Master of Science Program at Chinese partner Universities.
Italian students attending the CSC program at partner Universities in China:
2011-12:
- 2 students at Tsinghua University
- 2 students at Beihang University
Politecnico di Torino has signed two cooperation agreements with partner Universities for the Doctoral students placement under the framework of Scholarship Council Program:
- Tianjin University 12/12/2008
- South China University of Technology 3/11/2009
It is also worth mentioning other cooperation projects and activities, as listed below.
EU-CHINA Clean Energy Center
EuropeAid cooperation Project for the establishment of a EU-CHINA Clean Energy Center in Beijing aiming at identifying strategies and common policies in the field of clean energy. EC2 was created in March 2010 by the Chinese government and the European Union, which invested 10 million Euros on a five-year project. The project is supported by the Italian Ministry for the Environment, Land and Sea, which co-finances the project with over two million Euro. Politecnico di Torino leads a consortium of five European Institutions (CMCC, Unical, REC, CEA, Chalmers University), and three Chinese Institutions (CASS, ERI, Tsinghua University).
Erasmus Mundus (Action 2): EXPERTS
Launched in 2010, the Erasmus Mundus (Action 2) project supports the individual mobility to and from third countries. The project, financed by the European Commission, provides scholarships for students, PhD, researchers, academic and administrative staff. The scholarship recipients comes from: Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Indonesia, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Philippines.
Henan campus
The “Politecnico di Torino – Henan Campus”, supported by the Department of Industry and Information of the Henan Province, was established in 2010 within the premises of the Henan University of Science and Technology.
From the academic year 2011/12, Chinese students attend the first year at HUST. Courses in the following years can be attended for two or three years at Politecnico di Torino, according with the curriculum studiorum agreed by the two partner Universities. Upon completion of their studies, students obtain the bachelor of Science degree.
Research Laboratory in Luoyang
Joint Research Laboratory in the field of glasses and glass fibres for Photonic application has been established in 2008 and is located in Luoyang. It is supported by the City of Luoyang.
Agreement for the implementation of student exchange and professorship program between the Italian Ministry of Environment, Land and Sea (IMELS), Politecnico di Torino andTongji University
In June 2011 an agreement between the Italian Ministry of Environment, Land and Sea (IMELS), Politecnico di Torino and Tongji University was concluded in order to widen the scientific and academic cooperation between the two universities in the fields of automotive innovation and sustainable mobility through the exchange of experience and the implementation of student exchange and professorship program. The project, sponsored by the Italian Ministry of Environment, Land and Sea, provides scholarships for Master of Science students and PhD students and support the mobility of the teaching staff of the involved sectors.
The program started operating in September 2011: until now, 4 Chinese students and 4 Italian students are completing their Master of Science degree in Automotive Engineering. Each student must spend 18 months at the partner Institution. Upon completion of their studies, students participating in this program will obtain a Double Degree from Politecnico di Torino and Tongji University.
At last, it is interesting to present the statistical data of the presence of Chinese students at Politecnico di Torino. The data show clearly the growing interest of Politecnico di Torino in receiving Chinese students and its attractiveness.
Number of Chinese Students at the Politecnico di Torino
academic year 2004-2005: 9
academic year 2005-2006: 20
academic year 2006-2007: 150
academic year 2007-2008: 364
academic year 2008-2009: 582
academic year 2009-2010: 722
academic year 2010-2011: 889
academic year 2011-2012: 1142
4.1.3.4.3 Examples of Previous Exchange Experiences between European and Chinese Universities in the Nuclear Engineering Field
Exchange programs at Politecnico di Torino at the master level
The master program in nuclear engineering has been involved in a European Asia Link project in the period 2005-2008. The partners of the project were the Royal Institute of Technology (Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan, KTH, Sweden, coordinator), on the European side, and TsingHua University (Beijing) and Harbin Engineering University (HEU, Harbin), on the Chinese side. The title of the project was: “An EU-China Campus for Energy and the Environment”. The project involved themes in both nuclear engineering and fuel cells for sustainable energy production. In the framework of the above project, several educational activities were carried on over the years, establishing a very fruitful interaction that lasts well beyond the time span of the project itself. Several students from the two European institutions obtained some of their academic requirements by performing some activity in China. Also a program for carrying out some experimental activities in Chinese facilities was implemented. From Politecnico di Torino a student travelled to Beijing for a six-month period to complete his final project that led to a master’s thesis that was accepted and defended at the home university. Two summers schools were organized. The first one took place in Beijing and in Harbin, with a wide and specialized program. The second one was given in Beijing only and was focused on specific reactor physics and fuel cycle topics. Both schools were very successful. Within the project, there was the opportunity for European university professors (from both Politecnico di Torino and KTH) to spend some time in Beijing to give part of an institutional course. These occasions were very useful to establish good relationships with Chinese colleagues and students, which led soon to other exchanges at the PhD level. These two latter examples prove the feasibility of fruitful teacher/instructor exchanges, too.
In all the above activities, the language barrier constituted the most noticeable shortcoming. A big effort should be devoted to overcome this problem.
Experiences at Politecnico di Torino at the PhD level
In the frame of the project, Politecnico di Torino has hosted two Chinese students for common PhD activities:
- One Chinese student spent two years at Politecnico di Torino and one year at KTH and he earned his degree from Politecnico di Torino;
- One Chinese PhD candidate from TsingHua travelled to Politecnico di Torino for a six-month period to carry out a work of common interest.
In both cases, the work has led to publications in international journals and in the proceedings of international conferences.
4.1.3.4.4 The agreement between Politecnico di Torino and the Shanghai Jao Tong University
Politecnico di Torino and the Shanghai Jao Tong University have approved and officially signed in the past an agreement for granting a double master’s degree in Electro-Energetics Engineering, which includes a track in nuclear engineering. Chinese students would attend a full year of studies at Jao Tong, followed by a full year in Torino, to complete their curriculum. The courses in Torino are all provided in English, to facilitate exchanges. The agreement is still in force, and it could be used in the future as a reference for other similar agreements involving other universities.
A “pilot” example of exchange
In the past year informal contacts have been established between European and Chinese universities, leading to useful experiences in the exchange of students. The lessons learned in previous undertakings have helped to manage the various steps. More recently, an exchange project has been successfully started between Politecnico di Torino and the Jao Tong University in Shanghai (SJTU). Exploiting some contacts with colleagues at SJTU (in particular with Prof Xu Cheng, who is also taking part in this project), it has been arranged for a student of Politecnico di Torino to spend a six-month period in China to fully carry out the work leading to the preparation of the final thesis. The Chinese side has been very collaborative and will provide due assistance to the student to make most profitable his stay in China. The topic of his thesis has been discussed by both partners to a mutual satisfaction. The tentative title of the thesis is: “The development of sub-channel code for heavy liquid metal reactor”. The work will take place at the School of Nuclear Science and Engineering of SJTU under the supervision of Prof. Xiaojing Liu. Profs. S. Dulla and P. Ravetto serve as the tutors for the home university. The home university will provide some contribution to cover the travel and living expenses of the student. The student plans to start his exchange period in September 2013.
A “reference” agreement for the establishment of a common master’s degree.
A reference agreement to establish cooperation programs between Politecnico di Torino and Chinese universities has been signed. This framework is currently employed as a starting point for common programs in all educational engineering programs and could be adopted also in the nuclear field.
4.1.3.5 Education and Training Facilities, Laboratories and Equipment
4.1.3.5.1 Framework and Strategies
Education and training (E&T) of young nuclear engineers and scientists and knowledge management become a key issue in the sustainable development of nuclear power both in Europe and China. A tight collaboration and interaction between Europe and China enables the exchange of experience, human resources and an optimum usage of existing facilities, and subsequently enhances the effectiveness of E&T activities. The main objectives of this part of the work are:
- To identify the E&T facilities, laboratories and equipments for exchange purposes – in EU and in China (in close cooperation with existing database, such as by IAEA, OECD/NEA, other EU projects and Chinese national projects);
- To assess the capability of the facilities and to clarify the access rules and procedures.
The facilities considered for nuclear E&T consist of two groups, summarized in, but not limited to the following list:
- Separate effects facilities, such as:
Flow visualization facilities
Heat transfer facilities
Severe accident facilities
Material corrosion and/or stress corrosion cracking facilities
Multi-phase facilities
Flow induced vibration facilities
Numerical visualization of various separate phenomena
-Integral effect facilities or laboratories, such as:
Research reactors
Radiation protection labs
Nuclear Power Plant Simulators
Hot labs and radiochemistry labs
Facilities for safety systems
Software platform for coupled numerical simulation
The first task is to identify existing facilities in both Europe and China based on public (e.g. IAEA, OECD) and internal (e.g. internal report of partner organizations) information sources. A detailed assessment of the collected information will be carried out with the purpose to identify the purpose and capability of various facilities, to clarify the rules and procedures to access the facilities, and if required to develop strategy to support the exchange purposes.
4.1.3.5.2 Objectives to be achieved and the Corresponding Action Plan
Based on a recent activity developed within the EU Sustainable Nuclear Energy Technology Platform, a survey was undertaken across OECD countries to measure the availability and rate of use of nuclear research infrastructure for education and training. Some recommendations based on the outcomes of this investigation are (SNE-TP 2010):
- Co-ordination of the access to research facilities suitable for E&T uses should be internationalised and efforts should be made by governments to financially support existing structure.
- Research facilities should work with industry and academia to create opportunities for more effective use of research facilities so as to enhance learning in training and education - Special attention should be directed to the needs of universities for access to relevant nuclear instrumentation and critical facilities, including research reactors to perform research and enhance education. Infrastructure support should be provided to maintain existing nuclear facilities, where these can be refurbished, or to replace them, when they are obsolete.
- Governments should strongly encourage and support the international initiatives and programmes, which foster consistent quality of the education and training being delivered in different countries and overall contribute to enhancing human resource development capacities.
The main objectives of this work are:
- To identify existing facilities, laboratories and equipments in both EU countries and China for possible E&T purpose;
- To assess the capability of the facilities and to clarify the access rules and procedures;
- To make recommendations to support the exchange purpose.
The work package is tightly connected to the other activities of the project. It provides information of and recommendations for the common usage of E&T facilities for the three subjects Nuclear Engineering, Radiation Protection, Waste Management and Disposal dealt with in sections 4.1.3.1 4.1.3.2 and 4.1.3.3 respectively.
The first task to identify existing facilities in both Europe and China is based on public and internal information sources. A list of criteria has been worked out, to select facilities most suitable for exchange programmes. For the selected facilities, features for exchange purposes are described, such as access rules, administration procedure and integration into the educational credit systems. 11 organizations are participating in this work, 4 European institutions and 7 Chinese institutions.
4.1.3.5.3 Selection of Facilities
Nuclear education and training is a subject attracting strong interest of the nuclear community. There exist, thus, several extensive analysis reports, such as the OECD/NEA report: “Research and Test Facilities Required in Nuclear Science and Technology (NEA, 2009)”, which also led to the compilation of the Research and Test Facility Database, containing information on over 700 nuclear test and research facilities. In Europe, the Sustainable Nuclear Energy Technology Platform (SNE-TP), which was established in 2007, had a working group in the area of education, training and knowledge management (SNE-TP 2010), which issued also a report on facilities for nuclear E&T.
To avoid too strong duplication and to take bilateral interests and the feasibility of common usage of facility into consideration, this report will focus on a few facilities covering the three subjects.
The main criteria are:
- Purpose. The facility is devoted to education, training or research, and not to commercial profit.
- Subjects. The facility is related to one of the three subjects, i.e. nuclear engineering, radiation protection and waste management
- Access rules. The facility is accessible for collaboration with Chinese partners, and has no political or commercial limitation factor.
- Target person. The facility can be used for E&T of graduate students or operation personals.
- Quality over Quantity. The number of selected facilities should be limited. Results related to the selected facilities should provide information and instruction for the establishment of collaboration.
The facilities selected in this report are described in a separate report. Here some facilities of Chinese partners are also included. On the recommendation of European project partners, and in agreement with the Chinese counterparts, some Chinese facilities are included in this report, to show some comparative information of facilities of both sides.
Education Reactors
Comprehensive databases on world research reactors exist, as IAEA Research Reactors Database (IAEA 2006). It, however do not report information on the E&T use of such facilities. According to the report issued by the ETKM working group of SNE-TP (SNE-TP 2010), in Europe, roughly one half of the research reactors are used for education at MSc/BSc levels, coupled with MSC and PhD thesis. It is also noted that more PhD students are involved in a research reactor than MSc students due to flexible time schedule of PhD thesis. Moreover, purpose of research reactors is not limited to nuclear engineering. They can be used for many other research subjects, such as physics, material, medicine, and other nuclear applications. Thus, this report does no’t include research reactors.
Thermal-hydraulic Facilities
A wide variety of thermal-hydraulic facilities (THF) exists in Europe and in China. THF in Europe is well documented and summarized in the report (SNE-TP 2010), where THF facilities are categorised according to their size and purpose. According to the selection criteria mentioned above, the following facilities are selected in this report covering three different classes, i.e. Integral test facility, facilities for Gen-IV systems and facilities for fundamental studies.
Computer Simulators.
Computer simulations and numerical simulators enable a better understanding of the structure and dynamic behaviour of nuclear systems, e.g. nuclear power plants, and will surely contribute significantly to the nuclear education and training, although there remains a need for the student/trainee to experience work environment conditions which are closer to the real world.
Facilities for Waste Management
The Josef Underground Laboratory is a new Faculty of Civil Engineering, Czech Technical University (CTU) in Prague. It was opened in June 2007 and is employed primarily for the teaching of students from the CTU and other universities. Other activities include research and cooperation on projects commissioned by the private business sector. The range of activities provided by the Josef underground laboratory is unique not only in the Czech Republic but throughout the whole of Europe. It provides a high level of practical education for students in real conditions and contributes to closer cooperation between universities and the world of business.
The underground laboratory HADES is the most important research infrastructure in Belgium for experimental research on the deep geological disposal of radioactive waste. It is situated in Boom clay at a depth of 224 meters. The major phases in the development of HADES comprised, among other things, the construction of the first access shaft (1980-1982), the building of the Underground Research
Laboratory (URL) (1982-1983) and the experimental shaft (1983-1984), the extension of the lab with the Test drift (1987), the construction of the second access shaft (1997-1999) and the realisation of the connexion gallery (2001-2002). The building of the underground laboratory demonstrated that it is technically feasible to dig out shafts and galleries in a plastic clay layer. Moreover, the excavation techniques have continuously been improved during the successive phases and methods have been developed to minimise the disruption of the clay formation. HADES is the reference laboratory for research on geological disposal of radioactive waste in clay formations. It is internationally recognised as a centre of expertise for disposal in clay, within the framework of the 'Network of Centres of Excellence for the Demonstration of and the Training in Radioactive Waste Disposal Technologies in Underground Research Facilities'.
Radiation Protection
Radiation protection is a topic not only for nuclear engineering, but also for many other subjects, such as medical applications. Among a large number of radiation protection labs, two are introduced in this report. The Nuclear Practical Laboratory at the University of Manchester has been under operation since 2005. This lab, as presented in Figure 22, contains radiation detectors, radioactive sources and a (thermal) neutron source (from alpha-Be) and can be used to demonstrate properties of radiation A range of state-of-the-art nuclear detectors for alpha, beta, gamma, neutron detectors and water-moderated alpha-Be neutron source for neutron activation experiments are available in the lab. The laboratory is used for educational programmes for undergraduate physicists and engineers, and MSc students on degree programmes requiring practical demonstrations and experience in using experimental apparatus and detectors. It is not applied for research projects. In this Lab research and services related to the quantification and characterisation of radiation doses are conducted. The main research lines are situated in the field of:
• Personal dosimetry and dosimetric techniques.This lab aims at testing and improving several new techniques, and introduces them in practical applications, with a focus on active personal dosemeters, thermoluminescent and optically stimulated luminescent detectors.
• Medical dosimetric applications. The dominant research activities in diagnostic radiology are on measurement and simulation techniques, optimization of patient doses (also with respect to image quality), and on medical staff radiation protection.
In radiation therapy the focus is on the determination of peripheral doses and on-line dosimetry, to improve quality assurance of the treatment and radioprotection of patients. Concerning the exposure of medical staff, the focus is on optimizing the working procedures in the medical field with respect to radiation protection.
• Space dosimetry. Different programmes are established in collaboration with international expert groups, mainly focused around the DOBIES project (Dosimetry for Biological Experiments in Space). The dose is measured in different places in the International Space Station ISS to assess the dose by using a combination of dosimetric techniques.
• Neutron dosimetry. This lab is collaborating with different partners to characterize neutron fields in workplace situations. Also different available detector techniques are tested and characterized.
• Retrospective dosimetry. Retrospective dosimetry is a technique which enables the after-the-fact determination of overexposure using common materials which are available in the public domain. In this lab, research is done on building materials such as brick and roof tiles include heated materials (ceramics) which can act as a dosimeter.
• Internal dosimetry. In the anthropogammametry laboratory of SCK•CEN the focus is on the improvement of the direct measurements. This can be done by using modular physical phantoms (varying in length and weight) and by use of Monte Carlo code to simulate different counting geometries for the calibration of the measurement setup.
4.1.3.5.5 Summary
As it is known, the continuous development of nuclear power in international market requires an increase in high qualified engineers and scientists in nuclear R&D, design, manufacture, operation and licensing and supervision authorities. Nuclear education and training is a subject attracting strong interest of the nuclear community. This is also the common problem facing both EU and China in 21st century. Therefore, a tight international collaboration and exchange would contribute to the achievement of high quality education and training.
The objective of this report is to identify existing facilities, laboratories and equipments in both EU countries and China for the education and training purpose. Firstly, the criteria are established to select the existing test facilities of EU and China. Secondly, 17 test facilities covering the areas of nuclear engineering, waste management, and radiation protection are selected based on the criteria.
They are: education reactor in University Stuttgart, PKL integral facility in AREVA, KALLA in KIT, SWAMUP in SJTU, KIMOF in KIT, SMOTH in SJTU, KIVIF in KIT, MIRFF in SJTU, IAEA simulators, KISILA in KIT, Simulator Manchester University, Simulator at HRBEU, Simulator at SJTU, Josef underground laboratory in CTU, HADES underground laboratory in SCK⋅CEN, Nuclear practical laboratory in Manchester University, Laboratory for radiation protection dosimetry in SCK⋅CEN.
The facilities can be divided into three categories i.e. education reactor, thermalhydraulic facilities, simulators of nuclear power plants. Finally, the capabilities of the facilities are assessed to clarify the access rules and procedures, to make recommendations to support the exchange purpose between China and EU. The detailed information and questions sheets about every test facility are also offered in a separate report. The report provides also useful information of the public education and training facilities in the EU and in China.
Potential Impact:
4.1.4 Strategy on Nuclear Human Resources and Knowledge Management.
4.1.4.1 Status on Nuclear Human Resources.
While some countries have experienced challenges in maintaining national education and training infrastructure (in particular those with declining nuclear programmes or where smaller numbers of specialists are required) the general outlook of nuclear academic programmes seems to have improved over the last ten years. Some new and advanced nuclear courses are being launched in an increasingly global context. And these have sometimes succeeded attracting healthier numbers of students, whose interest may be stimulated by the prospect of new build, or high profile research topics and international projects.
In Sweden, nuclear education has now reached a very good state, with the numbers of students and professors markedly on the increase. Different education programmes are active in universities at various levels. Numerous new academic activities have also recently started, including the first dedicated programme in nuclear engineering at bachelor level, just launched in the autumn of 2010 at Uppsala University; the new nuclear engineering MSc started in the autumn 2009 by the Chalmers Institute of Technology, in Gothenburg, to train specialists for the nearby nuclear power plants.
In France, comprehensive, diversified and more specialised nuclear-related engineering programmes are provided in more than 30 engineering schools and universities through a well established and robust nuclear education system. Some longstanding and other recently launched courses, covering core and nuclear engineering disciplines as well as more specific subjects (e.g. chemistry/cycle or materials for nuclear/fuel, or safety/security) offer a growing supply capacity estimated, for the year 2009-2010, at approximately 900 students. Most of the nuclear specialised curricula last 1 or 2 years. Some engineering schools and universities have created new, more specialised programmes, with 2 and 3 year curricula in safety/security and nuclear engineering.
In Spain, new advanced courses have been set up in some universities over and above basic, more traditional nuclear subjects, and include: transmutation, material science, advanced computer codes, nuclear fusion technology, etc. These topics sought by the sector are appealing to students.
In Belgium, a four-year master courses in nuclear technology, medical nuclear techniques and radiochemistry is organised by three Belgian institutes. Radiation Protection Expert course granting the qualification of “radiation expert” started by SCK•CEN, two Belgian technical universities together with IRE (Institut National des Radio-Éléments).
In Italy, a two new master courses have started in the Universities of Bologna (2008) and Genoa (2010), the latter partially founded by the EU. The master degree in Nuclear Safety and Security delivered at the University of Pisa with the collaborative effort of industry, research centres and institutions (e.g. CIRTEN, Ansaldo Nucleare, ITER Consult, etc.) provides a curriculum in nuclear safety and security compatible with other Nuclear Engineering programmes in Europe. This is preceded by a preparatory course for students with MSc in industrial and civil engineering, but also physics and chemistry, to have a basic formation in nuclear science and technology.
In UK, at the master level, British universities have preserved existing courses, and introduced new ones, as a result of discussions with the industry and in response to identified needs.
In Germany, education, especially at postgraduate levels, has been enhanced by coupling with attractive research topics and international collaboration projects. Interestingly, the number of professors at universities has seen a considerable rise in recent years up to 2010, in contrast to the previous forecast made in 2004 .
It is important that universities inform and encourage prospective students to choose nuclear related courses. As a recent survey conducted in Switzerland by Nuklearforum Schweiz has shown, pre-university students are much more open to the notion of nuclear energy as part of a sustainable energy mix than are their school teachers.
In some countries universities are engaging with technical colleges, sometimes franchising courses and establishing partnerships to address the increasing demand of craft and technical levels in the sector. Initiatives are taken in this respect by various universities, for instance through the organisation of summer schools or “mentor projects” to give secondary school students an insight into nuclear courses (NEA, 2004).
4.1.4.2 Strategy on Nuclear Human Resources.
The distinctive characteristics of nuclear energy and its fuel cycle provide special requirements for E&T. In all countries with a nuclear programme, there exists a substantial nuclear estate to be safely operated and maintained. An essential complement to technical advancement must be the skills to support implementation and safe operations of nuclear facilities. Intricate global supply chains involving utilities, vendors and contractors in manufacturing, engineering, construction, operations, maintenance and decommissioning attend activities across the lifecycle of the nuclear reactor, bringing extensive direct employment. Highly skilled workforces involved are substantial and constitute a significant element of the costs of building and operating nuclear power plants. It may be surprising, therefore, that there are no robust estimates of the global workforce. The situation is reflected by the example of the international publication Nuclear Energy Outlook [NEA, 2008] which devotes a single page out of a total of over 450 to “Quantifying Workforce Needs”. In recognition of the gap in manpower data, the IAEA has recently launched a global Nuclear Power Human Resource Survey, intending to cover every NPP operator across the world and to collect comprehensive information that captures all of the different types of personnel that are currently applied to support operating nuclear power programmes. At a European level, the newly established European Human Resource Observatory Nuclear (EHRO-N) will produce and regularly update a quality-assured data base on the supply and demand of human resources. In the United States the Nuclear Energy Institute performs surveys of utility workforce needs. Estimates of workforce needs published by some individual nations (e.g. France, the United Kingdom and the United States) indicate future manpower demand in the tens-to-hundreds of thousands of skilled workers. In this respect the nuclear industry faces the dual challenge of an ageing workforce and a decline in the pool of people with recent construction experience, limitations that are exacerbated by the long lead times for nuclear training. Without coherent interventions by industry, governments and universities, severe workforce shortages in the arena of commercial nuclear plants may still emerge, mainly attributable to more than two decades of stasis in demand for new civilian plants and the increasing numbers of retirees.
4.1.4.3 Nuclear Engineering
4.1.4.3.1 Introduction
In order to build a long term cooperation in Education&Training in the field of nuclear engineering between Europe and China, a minimal insight on the current implement E&T programs is necessary. In the ECNET Report "Needs and strategies of cooperation on E&T in the area of nuclear engineering", the European situation is provided in an international context, with the current and future legal background of nuclear engineering. Also, an overview of the current status of the education & training framework in nuclear engineering is given, together with the status and strategy of human resources and knowledge management in this topic. In parallel, the same information was expecting to be provided by the Chinese part, in order to see both situations and then to prepare the present deliverable for a long term cooperation.
During the period of duration of the project we have not received information available on the Chinese situation about nuclear energy needs and possible strategies of collaboration in education & training in nuclear engineering, other than we received during the kick-off meeting in Beijing. During the last meeting in London (December 2012) the EU partners in the project decided to contact each Chinese WP leader, sending several key question with the main objective to prepare deliverables according to the answers. However, we didn´t receive any answer from the Chinese partners, at least in the field of nuclear engineering.
In order to obtain some conclusions and recommendations, this report provides an overview of the Chinese nuclear program for the next coming years, and according to that, consider if the education and training provided by Chinese universities and institutions is able to abord the ambitious nuclear program by themselves for the next 20-30 years, in relation with trainers and trainies. However, due to the limited amount of information no roadmap and guidelines can be drawn for a long term cooperation in this field.
4.1.4.3.2.The Chinese program of nuclear engineering.
Because the economy in China has been growing very rapidily in the last 20 years, they have urgently need of energy in general, and it is more important than in Europe for the next 20 or 30 years from now. In this scenario, the nuclear energy is the more demanded due to the higher power installed per unity, with less dependance of imported fuel, as gas or oil, and preserving the environment. It is expected that by 2020 the electricity demand in China will become to duplicate as compared to 2010.
Concerning the global environment, China recently overtook the USA as the world's largest contributor to CO2 emissions, because more than 80% of electricity production comes from fossil fuel. The Chinese contribution to the global coal-related emissions will grow by 2.7% per year and reach 9.3 billion tones in 2030.
Due to the well known limitation in renewable energy and hydro-power, nuclear power is considered as a safe, clean, sustainable and economic energy source. In 2007, China issued an ambitious program of mid-term nuclear power development, in which the total nuclear power will reach 88 GW with 58 GW in operation and 30 GW under construction by 2020. Being around 200 GW by 2030 and around 400 GW by 2050. That will make about 25% of the total electricity production at that time, overtaking the average of nuclear energy in the world, fixed in 16%.
4.1.4.3.3. Needs of Education and Training in Nuclear Engineering
At the beginning of this century the growing recognition of climate change and the need to decarbonize the generation of electricity was becoming obvious. Many countries initiated new nuclear programmes to cope with the future electricity needs. However, the short timescales needed to deliver the new power station programmes highlighted a number of challenges. It was immediately obvious that there were insufficient manufacturing facilities to meet the potential demand and it was also obvious there would be skill shortage not only in the supply chain but also to design, construct, commission, operate the new facilities, and to decommission the old plants.
The distinctive characteristics of nuclear energy give special requirements for education and training. In national level, countries with nuclear power need young nuclear engineers. Significant efforts will be required to maintain an adequate skilled and competent workforce, compensating a generally ageing workforce and maintaining long term sustainability, especially in those countries that have pregrammed a growing of nuclear energy, as is the case of China.
The continuous development of nuclear power in international market requires an increase in high qualified engineers and scientists in nuclear R&D, design, manufacture, operation and licensing and supervision authorities. In European nuclear engineers are needed both for national demand and international market. With globalization of the nuclear industry, nuclear power has become an international business. Great emphasis has been placed on international collaboration for regulation, R&D, as well as the global supply chains involving utilities, vendors and contractorsin manufacturing, engineering, construction, operations, maintenance and decommissioning.
With aspect to international market, the EU nuclear industries are strongly involved in the international nuclear market. Due to the global expansion of nuclear power, young generation nuclear engineer is required to fulfil the requirements on the increase in the total engineers.
In China, the education of young nuclear engineers becomes a problem in the development of nuclear power. Only the growth of nuclear power with a speed of about 10 GWe per year requires new nuclear engineers of several thousands every year. To educate this large number of nuclear engineers, many Chinese universities established in the past few years nuclear engineering departments. However, the quality of nuclear educators as well as education infrastructure at such new departments is not guaranteed. Several Chinese universities have established agreements with european universities, having large experience in nuclear education, to provide joint degrees and in some cases double degrees, exchanging students abroad and receiving foreing professors in nuclear energy.
The nuclear training of nuclear professionals belongs mainly to tasks of nuclear industries themselves. In one side they establish their own training facility and training programs. European industry has installed offices and signed agreements to deliver training programs for groups of employees, such as leadership, researcher and operators for nuclear installations in the fuel cycle and in the NPPs.
After the Fukushima accident nuclear education and training becomes more important and attracts more attention of both European and Chinese nuclear community. One lesson learned is to enhance a tight collaboration and interaction. It is well agreed that nuclear power engineering, especially nuclear safety, is an international issue not restricted to national level. Education and training of high qualified nuclear engineers for nuclear industries is a common interest of EU and China.
In the EU, a large experience in construction, operation in nuclear facilities, including nuclear E&T facilities is available. Chinese nuclear environment and nuclear technology will be fruitful for European young nuclear engineers for their future collaboration projects with China.
4.1.4.3.4. Cooperation between China and Europe in E&T in Nuclear Engineering.
In the kick-off meeting, the North China Electric Power University (NCEPU) dedicated a presentation to define what was interesting from Chinese E&T in nuclear engineering. Information concerning the current E&T framework in nuclear engineering in China should have been delivered during the second Project Quarter. This task should include for the Chinesee part : organizations of nuclear education and training program; definition of the curricula of nuclear education, for graduates in Nuclear Engineering in Masters and in Doctoral Degrees; level required of trainees and curricula of training programs; general definition of certification, qualification, competences, passport etc.
In this overview, it was defined as a key point for the cooperation in nuclear education and training program, both in the domestic scenario and in the international one. Recommendations on the Roadmap and the Guidelines of the Cooperation were planned to be delivered during the 5th Project Quarter, in which governments, industry and universities would be taken into account. For the industry, the following topics were identified: management aspects, human resources and cooperation with universities . For the governements, policy aspects, legal and financial aspects to initiate a more global cooperation. Finally, for universities, the curricula of nuclear education, the curricula of training programs and the cooperation with industries. However, this ambitious program that would be covered in the ECNET Project, could not be completed as no information was provided from the Chinese side. The following questions were sent to NCEPU, but the returned information was insufficient:
• How many nuclear power plants are in operation at your country? And how many are under construction?
• What is the percentage of the nuclear power in the total electricity?
• Is there any power plant in decommissioning?
• What are the plans of the Governement for the nuclear energy in the next forty years?
• What is the public opinion about the nuclear energy at your country?
• What areas of the nuclear engineering are covered by your national enterprises, and what are less covered?
• Are there any of your national enterprises working in nuclear projects outside your country?
• Could you say some words about the regulatory authority in yor country related the needs of E&T?
• Do you see opportunities in the EU- China collaboration in E&T in Nuclear Engineering?
• What recommendations and guidelines should you consider for this collaboration?
• Does your government grants students for mobility?
• Does the Chinesse industry needs human resources for the nuclear program? How many yearly?
• Does universities cover all curricula for the nuclear applications? What is the relationship between universities and end users?
• Do you see interesting to create several E&T pilots courses in NE?
• Do you consider that bilateral agreements with EU universities are well stablished or need some additional enhancement?
• What is the added value for China of this long term cooperation?
4.1.4.3.5. Conclusion and Recommendation for a Long Term Cooperation between China & Europe on Education & Training in Nuclear Engineering.
Because of the scarce amount of information provided by Chinese partners, any recommendation for a long term cooperation, besides the exchange of information, is difficult to identify. However, this project has several important attactives for the young generations of both sides, that should need explore as a real continuation of this ECNET project, and our proposal is to enhance and initiate new conversations because many of the EC partners in this project have bilateral agreements with some of the Chinese universities also in the project. It is not difficult to create a basic curricula for joint degrees.
For the EU a number of challenges could be:
1. How to capture the knowledge of those in the nuclear industry who will retire in the next decade so that all their experience and the lessons learned by the nuclear industry will not be lost.
2. How to make the nuclear industry attractive to young engineers and scientists so that the aspirations of Member States; whether to expand their use of nuclear power, maintain their current programmes or withdraw from nuclear power and decommission their nuclear power stations and other nuclear facilities; can be met for decades into the future.
3. How can the decline in the nuclear education and training programmes be reversed and universities and colleges be persuaded to develop and deliver the necessary nuclear engineering and science programmes to provide the nuclear workforce of the future.
These challenges are also valid for the Chinese E&T program, and particularly is more important due to the above behaviours. Both sides should encourage again this ambitious program in the Horizon 2020, with more expected impacts as:
• to promote the mutual recognition of the Education and Training(E&T) programmes on EU and Chinese side.
• to expand the exchanges of students, and lecturers.
• to secure the knowledge management as appropriate.
• to prepare benchmarks for the curricula.
• to establish a common definition of the profiles of workers in different areas of nuclear engineering
• to define traning programmes in close collaboration with the industry and regulators.
In a future project stakeholders and end users shoud be involved. These would offer to the End-Users a broader basis of human resources and foster cooperation in nuclear power development.
Necertheless, some considerations made to show the status of Nuclear Energy within EU and China and to establish a roadmap for long term collaboration. First of all, nuclear engineering is a multidisciplinary subject, covering nuclear and reactor physics, material science, mechanics and thermalhydraulics, and others important areas as nuclear safety. For both electrical generation and medical or industrial applications, these disciplines will require expertise in nuclear engineering and science, in the next 30 or 40 years from now.
It is expected to implement the designed pilot items under a new ECNET project at a trial scale (e.g. cross participation in relevant events and courses, exchange of course curricula, exchange of students and lectures, development of specific E&T programs, preparation of textbook and materials, distance learning, knowledge management) in any appropriate multilateral and/or bilateral framework, mainly by the project partners. Establishment of an "EU-China Centre for Nuclear Education and Training" is also discussed as a future possibility.
In a long-term horizon nuclear power is going to expand in countries of the EU and China. Keeping open the nuclear option means an important effort of education and training, maintaining and also increasing the present personnel in both nuclear installations and research organizations. Education, training and knowledge management in nuclear engineering is a matter of concern in most of the worldwide countries, and it is one of the main objectives of the long-term cooperation between EU and China.
4.1.4.4. Strategy on Human Resources in Radiation Protection
4.1.4.4.1 Expected Developments in the European Union
The new European legislation in radiation protection, published in January 2014 and introducing a Radiation Protection Expert and a Radiation Protection Officer with clear defined tasks, has to be transposed into national legislation within a certain timeframe (generally 4 years after publication). At the moment, different EU member states are preparing their legislation around this topic.
Most of the member states will revise
- the education and training of key persons in the field of radiation protection (now: the qualified experts in every possible form, then: the RPE and RPO);
- their system of certification, mainly based on the guidance provided by ENETRAP and EUTERP.
In parallel, most of the member states will adapt their requirements on the medical physics expert (MPE), based on the guidance that will be provided by the Medical Physics Project. Some member states will go further and make an analysis on the minimal staffing of the key persons in radiation protection (RPE, RPO and MPE), based on the tasks, duties and obligations attributed by the revised EU Directive. As confirmed by previous surveys (For example the FP6 ENETRAP survey, but also the survey done in the framework of the MPE project), it is expected that most EU member states experience a general shortage of experts in radiation protection. Projects such as FP6 ENETRAP and FP7 ENETRAP II provided useful input to build up a regulatory system for radiation protection experts which is harmonized in Europe, allowing a mutual recognition between the EU member states with a cross-border mobility of experts in radiation protection.
4.1.4.4.2 Recommendations on the Roadmap and the Guidelines for the Long Term Cooperation
In order to build a long term cooperation in Education & Training in the field of radiation protection between Europe and China, a minimal insight on the current implemented E&T programs is necessary. In the ECNET report "Needs and strategies of cooperation on E&T in the area of radiation protection", the European situation is provided in an international context, with the current and future legal background of radiation protection. Also, an overview of the current status of the education & training framework in radiation protection is given, together with the status and strategy of human resources and knowlegde management in this topic. Since very limited information is available on the Chinese situation of education & training in radiation protection, several key questions were sent to the Chinese project partners of ECNET.
Only the project partners of the Southwest University of Science and Technology (SWUST) and Tsinghua University were able to provide some answers to the questions below. This report provides an overview of the answers. However, due to the limited amount of information no roadmap can be drawn for a long term cooperation in radiation protection.
The Chinese system of radiation protection.
1. Is there a regulatory basis which obliges training in radiation protection?
1.a. for workers (being exposed to ionising radiation)?
According article 28 of the Regulations on Safety and Protection of Radioactive Isotope and Radioactive Installation (Decree 449, issued by the State Council, effective as of December 1, 2005), all activities if production, sales and use of radio-isotopes and radiation devices should be carried out by staff with the knowledge of safety and protection by education and training and assessment.
Article 4.4.1 from the Basic standards for protection against ionizing radiation and for the safety of radiation sources ( GB18871-2002 ) also states that each relevant personnel should be properly trained and have the appropriate qualifications.
It was acknowledged by SWUST that certain categories of workers are obliged to have a training in radiation protection and safety. The following categories were identified:
a. Administrators and inspectors from the radiation safety department of the Environmental Protection Ministry
b. Workers from the companies/organisations that produce, sell, or use radioactive isotopes or facilities.
c. People from other nuclear technique application fields that are related with radiation protection.
1.b. for professionals exposing patients (medical exposures, like e.g. diagnostic radiology, nuclear medicine and radiotherapy)
This was affirmed by Tsinghua University.
1.c. are there also regulation or guidelines for continuous training (after the initial training)
This was affirmed by Tsinghua University; every 2 or 4 years.
If yes, please provide details. If no, will there be a regulatory basis in the near future?
Article 22 of Order 18 of the MEP (Ministry of Environmental Protection - Chinese Environmental Protection Administration) states that the certificate of training as a radiation safety officer, should be renewed once every four years by retraining.
This retraining includes aspects on radiation safety, newly enacted relevant laws, regulations and radiation safety and protection of professional standards, technical specifications, as well as radiation accident case studies and experience feedback.
If there is no participation in this retraining , the radiation safety training certificate automatically expires.
2. Does China have a system of competent persons in radiation protection defined in national regulation or guidelines? If yes, please provide details.
2.a. Qualified persons?
According to the information provided by SWUST, the following profiles are identified in China which seem to be linked to radiation protection and certified by the central government:
- Nuclear Environmental Impact Assessment Engineer
- Nuclear safety Engineer
2.b. Radiation Protection Officer (RPO) and Radiation Protection Expert (RPE)?
Tsingua University stated that these profiles are not implemented so far, but this appears to be in progress.
2.c. Medical Physics Expert (MPE)
Tsinghua University stated that every hospital has a medical physicist position, but no specific certified system exists in the country.
Education & training in radiation protection in China
3. Is the education & training recognized by the Chinese Authorities (Nuclear Regulatory Authority, Ministry of Education, or other)?
It was confirmed that education & training in radiation protection is recognized by the Chinese Ministry of Environmental Protection (Chinese Environmental Protection Administration – EPA) and the Ministry of Health.
4. Do dedicated education & training programmes in radiation protection exist in China (e.g. on a Bachelor or Master level, postgraduate,...)?
Several universities such as Tsinghua University, Sichuan University, Haerbin Industry University etc., have radiation protection programmes.
Collaboration between China and Europe in education & training in radiation protection
5. Is there already an exchange in students between China and Europe in education & training in radiation protection?
This was not confirmed by the Chinese project partners.
6. What are the needs of China in education & training in radiation protection?
6.a. on the level of education & training programmes?
Tsinghua Universtity indicated the following needs: information exchanges, teaching skills and tools, etc.
6.b. on the level of human resources?
Tsinghua Universtity indicated the following needs: high level teachers, training of the teachers, etc.
7. Do you see opportunities for collaboration between EU and China in education & training in radiation protection? If yes, please provide details.
7.a. In exchange of students?
7.b. In setting up a pilot course with a joint programme in radiation protection?
7.c. Are there any guidelines or recommendations to consider for such a collaboration?
As an overall answer to question 7, the Chinese project partners seem to be keen to the collaboration between EU and China, but the key problem is the financial support to these activities.
4. Conclusion and recommendation for a long term cooperation between China & Europe on education & training in radiation protection.
The amount of information provided by the Chinese partners of ECNET WP2 did not provide a full insight into the system of education and training in radiation protection. Therefore, any recommendation for a long term cooperation, besides the exchange of information, is difficult to conclude.
4.1.4.5 Geological Disposal
The following series of questions and answers were exchanged between the European partners and the Chinese partners with respect to Education and Training for nuclear waste management and geological disposal.
• Are there any dedicated curricula on geological disposal at the university level?
Yes, it is treatment and disposal of radioactive wastes; it is mandatory for nuclear major.
• What areas of geological disposal issues are presently covered by the universities’ programs?
The universities programs cover disposal of low, middle and high level radioactive waste
• How many students involve in this field? At which level (bachelor, Master …)?
About 300 students involve in this field; some of them are bachelors, some of them are masters.
• Do you see opportunities in the EU- China collaboration in E&T in geological waste disposal?
Yes. The staffs who take part in the collaboration and communication will be more international, rich experienced and highly talented; which also paves the way for the organizations to be more international. Profound and extensive international cooperation is possible in the future.
• In your opinion which kind of collaboration is more effective (e.g. exchange of courses, exchange of students, short visits…)?
Short visit is more targeted compared to course and student exchange. By studying and talking issues, exchanging ideas face to face the select scholars and experts will improve their ability in scientific research and be more open minded and international, which also do groundwork for future international cooperation.
• What recommendations and guidelines should you consider for this collaboration?
1. The present EU-China collaboration should be pushed forward and extensive collaboration should be explored.
2. Education collaboration should be continued; the counterparts should yearly exchange students and teachers visit and exchange regularly.
3. The program should be continued and perfected, including regular tele-conference, conclusive report, yearly report and exchange visit.
4. Advanced technology in the collaboration should be understood and masted, thereupon more work will be done in research, spread and innovation.
5 Scientific research projects should be applied jointly
6 Effective way for sustainable development should be sought.
• Does you government grants students for mobility?
Yes. Students, such as bachelors, masters and doctors can be educated in courses, experiments and thesis by international exchange.
• Does the Chinese industry need human resources for the geological disposal program? How many yearly?
Yes. China goes slowly in high level waste geological disposal compared to U.S and France. China focuses on construction of underground simulate labs, disposal place sitting and geological verification. Because principle researchers are universities and institutions, so china needs many scientific talents devoted in theoretical calculation and ground experiments.
• What is the relationship between universities and official organizations in charge of radioactive waste management?
The universities can offer talents, support official organizations in radioactive waste management, or train the persons who come from the organizations.
• Do you see any interests in creating several E&T common pilot courses?
Yes. International common pilot courses can foster high level talents, broaden international view, enrich collaboration experience, thereupon paves a way for internationalization. So it is possible for deep and extensive international collaboration in research area.
• Do you consider that bilateral agreements with EU universities are well established or need some additional enhancement?
Even though the bilateral agreements between Eu-China universities has been well established, more discussions should be proceeded in exchange majors and students quantity, so more talents in different levels and different areas can take part in and create international study and exchange atmosphere.
• What is the status of degrees obtained in China? (e.g. recognized at national level, recognized by industry,…)
International degrees are highly recognized both at industry and national level in China because exchange students can improve language and professional ability, understand culture difference, try to think more independently, adapt to different environment ; even though it has been launched a little late in China, this program is remarkable and extensively concerned by students, parents and universities.
• Is transfer of students between Chinese universities possible?
Exchange students can study mandatory courses locally, take part in mass activities and make friends, quickly master foreign languages, improve all-round ability and enrich their experience. International experience is highly valued by universities and enterprises, so exchange program is encouraged by universities and education organizations in China.
• Do you have national/local rules for the recognition of educational modules awarded by another university (abroad and/or inside China)?
China government and local education bodies actively support exchange student program and issue favorable policies to help students to overcome differences in education methods and contents and adapt overseas study and living,
4.1.4.6. Future developments of Europe-China collaborations in Nuclear Education
At a preliminary stage, an assessment of previous experiences on mobility of nuclear engineering students between European universities and China should be carried out, to evidence positive aspects and shortcomings. It would be advisable also to draw a clear picture of existing institutional frameworks (common degrees, exchange programs, bilateral agreements and so forth) that are already active in the field of nuclear and energy-related engineering programs at the master and doctorate levels. This step would allow to gain some understanding of possible strengths and weaknesses in the process and to get indications for future effective actions. Consequently, possible common development lines in the field of nuclear education should be investigated and discussed. It is recommended that the activity considers and proposes efficient ways to organize mobility of master’s students for courses (e.g. one semester). It appears that the main problem would be the language barrier. It is highly recommended to extend the use of the English language in master’s courses, both in European and Chinese universities.
In a first step it seems feasible to try to organize the mobility of master’s students for their final thesis. Previous experiences (e.g. in the framework of the Asia Link Project “An EU-China Campus for energy and environment”, Coordinator: KTH; Partners: Politecnico di Torino, Tsinghua University Beijing and Harbin Technical University) led to successful experiences for both Chinese students moving to the European partner universities and for European students in China.
The possibility of the establishment of joint master’s and PhD programs could also be investigated. It is suggested to analyse all the academic and legal aspects of the matter, to refer to previous existing agreements and to investigate possible solutions. As an example, a program for a common master has been officially established in the Nuclear and Electric engineering field between the Shanghai Jiao Tong University and Politecnico di Torino (students should take one year in Jiao Tong and a second year at Politecnico to earn a common master's degree). Furthermore, several frameworks between China and EU are already existing and could be used for future implementations. For instance, at present Politecnico di Torino has formally signed 19 general agreements and 6 double-degree agreements with Chinese universities, 5 agreements establishing a Chinese campus at Politecnico di Torino and 750 Chinese students in various engineering disciplines have been hosted at Politecnico di Torino in 2010. It is deemed advisable that these agreements are extended to the nuclear and energy education programs.
Another interesting field where collaboration between EU and China could be fruitfully expanded concerns the organization of summer schools and training sessions on experimental facilities (well available in China) and the organization of the mobility of lecturers. In the above-mentioned Asia Link Project two summer schools were held in China and short courses were given on nuclear technology at Tsinghua University.
As an outcome of the on-going work and of the forthcoming workshop to be organized, a report on current status and further recommendations on the implementation and compatibility of nuclear education system will be issued, including a possible agreement on mutual recognition of systems.
The main objective of the following steps in the present project is to establish a common document in which European and Chinese universities agree on a recognized crediting system. Mobility programs might be set up in the frame of already existing collaborations or on the basis of newly established agreements. An important issue would be to find resources in support of the action. A possible (incomplete) list of tasks and objectives is following:
- organize the mobility of master students for sets of courses on specialized topics, either for a full semester or for a shorter period;
- organize education sessions at experimental facilities; this is particularly relevant for European students who may not have the opportunity to visit and practise at large experimental facilities in their own countries;
- organize the mobility of master students for carrying out the final thesis work;
- assess the possibility to extend the organization of joint programs (master and PhD level) beyond existing frameworks and to harmonize these activities on the basis of common shared principles on the evaluation of the curriculum;
- organize summer schools or similar activities on specific topics (previous experiences are available, e.g. in Asia Link programs);
- organize mobility of lecturers and identify topics and areas on which this activity could take place in the short time scale (e.g. within this program).
For experimental activities, the connection with the outcomes of survey of facilties is certainly important.
The experience gained would constitute the basis of the recommendations for future longer time-scale collaborations and activities.
4.1.4.7 Conclusions
Some conclusions can already be drawn on the basis of the experiences presented above on the compatibility of the education systems in Europe and in China with regards to nuclear engineering. All the exchanges between Politecnico di Torino and Chinese universities have proved very fruitful, interesting and useful. All the students involved have shown great appreciation and found highly valuable the mobility experience, both on the technical and on the human sides.
The language barrier still constitutes a major difficulty, both at the academic level and for the everyday life aspects, especially when considering the mobility of European students to China. The exchange for a final project at the master level and for PhD seems to be the most feasible, due to the possibility to use English as an efficient means of communication.
The possibility to reach and to establish a formal agreement leading to a double degree is proved, for instance, by the agreement that has been signed between Politecnico di Torino and Shanghai JaoTong University for granting a double degree in Electric/Energy and Nuclear Engineering. This document (see Annex) could constitute the basis for future similar agreements between European universities or consortia, such as ENEN, and Chinese institutions.
List of Websites:
http://www.enen-assoc.org/en/activities/for-universities/coopbeyondeu/ecnet.html
European Nuclear Education Network Association
Centre CEA de Saclay – INSTN – Bldg 395
F-91191 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
Tel +33 1 69 08 97 57
Fax +33 1 69 08 99 50
E-mail: sec.enen@cea.fr