Final Report Summary - IRAFC (Development of an Internal Reforming Alcohol High Temperature PEM Fuel Cell Stack)
Executive Summary:
The Consortium
IRAFC groups together the different types of players involved in development of materials for application in PEM fuel cells: Advent, UMCS, Nedstack, CNRS, FORTH and IMM. This specific partnership has advanced knowledge, techniques and expertise in the fields of polymer electrolyte and reforming catalyst synthesis, materials and concepts for high temperature PEM applications as well as in their fabrication and testing.
The goal
The ultimate goal of the project was to deliver an internal-alcohol-reforming, high-temperature, PEM fuel cell (IRAFC) with the following characteristics:
(i) Power of 0.15W/cm2 at a potential of 0.7 V and operating temperature of 220oC,
(ii) Specific (W/kg) and volumetric (W/m3) power density similar to current, state-of-the-art high-temperature PEM fuel cells operating on hydrogen.
How to get there
Achievement of the project goal required development of the critical components of the IRAFC:
(i) New polymer membranes with improved thermal and chemical stability able to operate at 220oC,
(ii) New alcohol reforming catalysts with improved activity and stability able to provide stable hydrogen production in the anode environment,
(iii) Bipolar plates specifically designed under the requirements of IRAFC operation.
Project Results
After 42 months of project duration, the partners have successfully completed their efforts per the following:
• New type cross-linked membranes based on aromatic polyethers were developed and successfully tested for 700h (0,7V at 0,2A/cm2 for hydrogen-air feed gases) at 210oC.
• CuMnAlOx catalysts can effectively operate at 200°C for at least 500 h with a 17% decline in activity.
• New high temperature composite bipolar plate materials have been specially designed and produced.
• Thorough CFD simulation of different options of the geometry of the bipolar plates, the optimum geometry best suited to achieve flow equipartition and sufficient contact of the hydrogen formed with the fuel cell membrane was found.
• A single-cell of a high-temperature, polymer electrolyte fuel cell incorporating the above.
• The main components of the final IRAFC unit have been prepared (reformers, MEAs, bipolar plates, peripherals) and system integration/testing has been succesfully carried out.
Project Context and Objectives:
The main objective of the IRAFC project was the development of an internal reforming alcohol high temperature PEM fuel cell (Fig. 1). Accomplishment of the project objective was made through:
• Preparation of robust polymer electrolyte membranes for HT-PEMFCs, which are functional within the temperature range of 190-220oC.
• Development of alcohol (methanol or ethanol) reforming catalysts for the production of CO-free hydrogen in the temperature range of HT PEMFCs, i.e. at 190-220oC.
• Integration of reforming catalyst and high temperature MEA in a compact Internal Reforming Alcohol High Temperature PEMFC (IRAFC).
The compact system does away with conventional fuel processors and allows for efficient heat management, since the “waste” heat produced by the fuel cell is in-situ utilized to drive the endothermic reforming reaction. The targeted power density of the system is 0.15 W/cm2 at a cell voltage of 0.7V. Thus, the concepts of a catalytic reformer and of a fuel cell are combined in a single, simplified direct alcohol (e.g. methanol) High Temperature PEM fuel cell reactor. The heart of the system is the membrane electrode assembly (MEA) comprising a high-temperature proton-conducting electrolyte sandwiched between the anodic (reforming catalyst + Pt/C) and cathodic Pt/C gas diffusion electrodes. According to the configuration and the operating conditions described above, the IRAFC is auto thermal, highly efficient and with zero CO emissions. In addition, the direct consumption of H2 by the MEA (fuel cell) and the electrochemical promotion effect enhances the kinetics of reforming reactions, thus facilitating the efficient operation of the reforming catalyst at temperatures below 220°C.
The novelty of the proposed technological approach can be summarized in the following operating features:
• The use of active reforming catalysts integrated into the anodic compartment, which will produce H2 in-situ by utilizing directly the waste heat of the electrochemical process to cover the energy demands of the endothermic steam reforming reaction.
• H2 is readily oxidized on the Pt anode electrocatalysts into protons with the high electrokinetic efficiency of a H2 High Temperature PEM fuel cell. Depletion of H2 has a positive effect on the kinetics of the reforming reaction.
• The proposed reforming catalysts produce minimal amounts of CO (less than 1000ppm at 210oC, which nevertheless are not an issue for the Pt electrocatalyst due the high operating temperature of the cell.
• Novel high-temperature polymer electrolytes (e.g. the ADVENT TPS® polymer electrolytes) are employed, which are not permeable to methanol or ethanol.
The kinetic and electrokinetic efficiency of the high temperature system is enhanced by the separate functions of the reforming catalyst and Pt electrocatalyst.
Project Results:
The project main achievements are mentioned below:
• New type cross-linked membranes based on aromatic polyethers bearing main and/or side chain pyridine groups and side chain cross-linkable functionalities were developed and successfully tested for 700h (0,7V at 0,2A/cm2 for hydrogen-air feed gases) at 210oC.
• CuMnAlOx catalysts can effectively operate at 200°C for at least 500 h with a 17% decline in activity (Methanol conversions higher than 80%, if carefully preactivated).
• New high temperature composite bipolar plate materials have been specially designed and produced for this high temperature application (After 170h stable operation, 0.15mV/h degradation) at 200oC.
• Thorough CFD simulation of different options of the geometry of the bipolar plates, the optimum geometry best suited to achieve flow equipartition and sufficient contact of the hydrogen formed with the fuel cell membrane was found.
• In order to avoid possible dissolution of the reforming catalyst into the H3PO4 and corrosion of metal substrates anchoring the reforming catalyst an additional protection layer was added.
• A single-cell of a high-temperature, polymer electrolyte fuel cell incorporating ADVENT phosphoric acid doped copolymer and a methanol reforming catalyst in the anode has been constructed and tested at 200-210oC demonstrating the functionality of the unit. Specific targets for improvement of the efficiency have been also identified. These are the activity of the reforming catalyst and the thermal stability of the membrane for operation above 200oC.
• A CAD model of the integrated fuel cell stack and of the final IRAFC system was prepared. Peripherals for the BoP of the 100W IRAFC unit were developed.
• The main components of the final IRAFC unit have been prepared (reformers, MEAs, bipolar plates, peripherals) and system integration/testing has been succesfully carried out.
New type cross-linked membranes
The main target was the development of new aromatic polyethers bearing side cross linkable groups like carboxy, double and triple bonds. These new copolymers and terpolymers bearing the respective groups were synthesized and thoroughly characterized in order to examine their suitability for applications in high temperatures PEMFCs. Furthermore, different cross-linking methodologies were tested.
More specifically, carboxy containing polyethers (Scheme 1) were cross-linked through oxadiazole bond formation. Different reaction and reaction conditions were tested and the cross-linking efficiency was evaluated by DMA and solubility test (solubility decrease). Among the different methods the one based on the bistetrazole showed better cross-linking efficiency.
Copolymers and terpolymers bearing side double bonds (Scheme 2) were also synthesized and characterized accordingly, showing high thermal and oxidative stability. Various copolymers or terpolymers structures were used in order to control the phosphoric acid doping ability. Selected copolymers or terpolymers were cross-linked using bisazides as cross-linking agents at high temperatures. Different cross-linking conditions were used in order to achieve the optimum cross-linking efficiency which was confirmed either by DMA or by solubility test. In other words, the cross-linked membranes showed higher glass transition temperatures as well as limited solubility compared to the non-cross-linked ones.
Finally, copolymers bearing side triple bonds (Scheme 3) were synthesized and characterized, showing high thermal stability and very good mechanical properties. Cross-linked membranes have been prepared successfully by thermal treatment. However, these membranes cannot be used for further testing/evaluation, since they showed disintegration with time when doped in phosphoric acid.
Among the different methodologies used for cross-linking the one based on the introduction of side double bonds and the consequent thermal reaction with bisazide or the cationic polymerization of the double bonds in the presence of phosphoric acid, at high temperatures during their doping, were proven more efficient. The cross-linked membranes show excellent film quality, were insoluble in all used solvents and showed increased glass transition temperatures.
The doped cross-linked membranes obtained from the polymers bearing side double bond functionalities, were used for MEA preparation and single cell testing. These MEAs were tested at temperatures up to 220°C (Fig. 2). The results are promising since high ionic conductivities, well above 10-1S/cm in some cases, and performances as high as 0,7V at 0,2 A/cm2 for hydrogen-air feed gases were obtained.
The operating stability of these materials at temperatures above 200°C was examined and a stable performance for about 550h at 210oC was demonstrated (Fig .3).
Alcohol Reforming Catalysts
The reference CuMnOx was improved by addition of aluminium as promoter. Optimal loading of Al was determined.
• The effect of phosphoric acid vapours on catalyst performance was examined.
• Synthesis of CuMnOx catalyst from organic salt precursors did not lead to encouraging results.
• Cu/In2O3 catalysts were tested as alternative formulation, which did not outperform the CuMnOx.
• Palladium-zinc oxide-based catalyst stabilized with alumina or chromium oxide show high activity, selectivity, stability and sufficient hydrogen production rate in the steam reforming of methanol that fit the minimum requirements of the project.
• The best performance showed palladium catalysts (15 wt.% of Pd) with zinc oxide-chromium oxide support. They show excellent selectivity, high stability and did not deactivate after exposition to air.
• The high activity of catalysts was related to the formation of PdZn alloy during pre-activation with hydrogen or methanol-water vapours reaction mixture at 350oC.
• Other noble metal (Pt, Rh) containing catalysts were also tested for methanol steam reforming at low temperatures, which showed inferior performance compared to CuMnOx and palladium-zinc oxide formulations.
• The comparison of catalytic properties performed by all prepared catalysts revealed that the CuMnOx promoted with alumina showed highest activity (full conversion at a VHSV of 0.67 L/(gcat h). The palladium-zinc oxide-based formulations are the second choice catalysts for the low temperature (200oC) steam reforming of methanol.
Among the different catalysts used for methanol reforming, the ones based on copper-manganese and on palladium were chosen for optimization in respect to their use as low temperature methanol reforming catalysts. Doping of CuMnOx catalyst had a beneficial effect on catalytic activity towards hydrogen production via methanol reforming (Fig. 4). CuMnAlOx catalyst can effectively operate at 200°C (Fig. 5) for at least 500 h with a 17% decline in activity if carefully preactivated. Methanol conversions higher than 90% were achieved at 210oC even in the presence of 30% MeOH in the feed.
Also palladium-zinc oxide-supported catalysts were developed where the activity and selectivity of palladium-zinc oxide-supported catalysts are fairly stable. That kind of catalysts is resistant to shuts down and exposes to air at room temperature and at 180oC, as well as to the storage in air. They enable to achieve very high H2 and CO2 as well as low CO (lower than 2 %) selectivity at 200oC. Total methanol conversion can be achieved by adjusting the contact time of the catalysts with the methanol-water vapours reaction mixture. The advantage of the palladium-zinc oxide based catalysts is also their easy activation at low temperatures.
Both optimized catalytic formulations were successfully supported on metallic foams in order to be incorporated into the anode compartment according to IRAFC design. Soft chemical route (i.e. washcoating) was selected for scale-up synthesis, while special attention was paid on (i) the achievement of methanol reforming conversion values higher than 95% in order to avoid poisoning of MEAs by unreacted methanol (ii) phosphoric acid poisoning (an additional thin plate was placed between reformer and MEA in order to avoid catalyst degradation by phosphoric acid poisoning).
The activity and selectivity of palladium-zinc oxide-supported catalysts are fairly stable since only small deactivation during initial period of its work is observed. That kind of catalysts is resistant to shuts down and exposes to air at room temperature and at 180oC, as well as to the storage in air. They enable to achieve very high H2 and CO2 as well as low CO (lower than 2%) selectivity at 200oC. Total methanol conversion can be achieved by adjusting the contact time of the catalysts with the methanol-water vapours reaction mixture. The advantage of the palladium-zinc oxide based catalysts is also their easy activation at low temperatures.
Catalysts of palladium-zinc oxide supported on high-surface area conductive carbon with the optimum zinc/palladium molar ratio of 2.5-3.5 are easy activated at low temperatures and they are as stable in the steam reforming of methanol as catalysts without carbon. They very quickly recover their activity and selectivity after shuts down and exposes to air, as well as to the short- and long-term storage in air. Their activity is only a little lower while the carbon monoxide selectivity – only somewhat larger than those of the best catalyst without carbon support. The good activity and selectivity of the catalysts are ensured by the palladium-zinc alloy presence.
Electrochemical evaluation of new MEAs and electroreforming anode catalysts
Copper-based reforming catalyst was placed adjacent to ADVENT Technologies high temperature polymer electrolyte membrane/electrode assembly in an Internal Reforming Methanol Single Cell and tested for their electrochemical properties and chemical stability under various methanol/water anode feedstreams. Polarization measurements and ac impedance spectroscopy combined with measurements of reactor outlet composition were carried out. Methanol is being reformed inside the anode compartment of the fuel cell at 200°C producing H2, which is readily oxidized at the anode to produce electricity. The reformer provides enough hydrogen supply for efficient fuel cell operation at 600 mV with 0.2 A cm-2 and λΗ2 = 1.2. However, unreacted MeOH (~5%) in combination with low H2 content poisons the anode electrode and the cell performance rapidly decreases (Figs. 6 and 7). Gradual recovery of the initial performance under pure H2 is observed after switching to pure H2. A slight improvement of the cell’s design by the introduction of a pre-reforming step significantly improves the electrocatalytic behaviour.
Taking into account the strong acidic environment and possible dissolution of copper catalyst into the electrolyte, long term stability tests have been performed in the presence and absence of MEA (Fig. 8). In the absence of MEA, the catalytic performance was quite stable for 125 h (MeOH conversion higher than 90%). However, in the presence of MEA, MeOH conversion was rapidly reduced by 50% after 80 h on stream and remained stable at 45%. Extensive poisoning of reformer by H3PO4 is the main reason for such a behavior, as it was evidenced by post mortem analysis by SEM/EDX
Taking into account the thickness of the reformer (ranging from 10 to 3 mm), the morphology of the top surface of reformer was slightly different in color from the bottom and mid part of the reformer. Thus, a modification of the physicochemical nature of the copper was present. Despite the fact that such a modification is limited on the top or/and near-top surface area of the foam-based reformer, the poisoning effect of phosphoric acid is inevitable and a contingency plan was activated. Thus, an extra thin protection plate was added in the fuel cell in order to avoid direct contact of reformer and MEA and avoid diffusion of the phosphoric acid in the catalytic bed. Such a configuration will also overcome the aforementioned negative effect of unreacted MeOH on the MEA performance.
Stack components and design
Due to the internal reforming reaction that takes place in the MEA by incorporation of metal foam as catalyst carrier the main issue is the investigation of different channel geometries that assure equipartition of the reaction feed. Thorough CFD simulation of different options of the geometry of the bipolar plates revealed that the geometry best suited to achieve flow equipartition and sufficient contact of the hydrogen formed with the fuel cell membrane is the trapezoidal channel geometry introduced into the foam itself as shown in Fig.9. CFD simulation shows that any channel geometry on the bipolar plate itself leads to bypassing of the main part of the reaction feed. This is caused by a high catalyst load which results in a higher pressure drop of the foam compared to free channel geometry on the bipolar plate. Therefore the geometry has to be introduced into the foam itself to enforce the pass-through of the reaction feed via the metal foam catalyst.
Methanol reforming catalysts were incorporated onto copper foams by shaping them through Electro Discharge Machining (EDM), calcining the foams to improve the catalyst adhesion and wash-coating the catalysts as shown in Fig. 10. The foams were then polished and integrated into test cells for the construction of the short and final stack.
A re-design of the fuel cell stack was performed. Much simpler air-cooling through fins was chosen and the stack pre-heating is also done through these fins. The re-design reduced the power consumption of the BoP components.
A revised CAD model of the system was set up, which is shown in Fig.11. Utilizing the results from the simulation, the BoP components were constructed or purchased respectively in the reporting period. Fig. 12 shows the heat-exchangers HX-01 and HX-02 built by IMM, Fig. 13 the evaporator/ afterburner built by IMM and the metallic, electrically heated start-up monolith purchased from Emitec and coated with catalyst by IMM.
The sub-system of methanol evaporator, air blower and monolithic burner was testedseparately. As shown in Fig. 14, 200 L/min air could be pre-heated to a temperature of more than 200°C within less than 5 min. the pre-heating power required for the burner monolith amounted to only 71 W for a duration of 45 s.
Extensive poisoning of the methanol reforming catalyst by phosphoric acid activated a contingency plan with respect to the bipolar plates. The solution for preventing the reaction of the catalyst with H3PO4 was to place a thin graphite plate between the reforming and the electro-catalyst (Indirect IRAFC concept), which will prevent the corrosion of the reforming catalyst while allowing the current collection. The associated contingency plan with respect to phosphoric acid poisoning was based on the design and construction of appropriate bipolar plates. Thus, new cells were developed. Long side fins instead of liquid cooling plates were introduced in the modified plates. The anode plates were designed in such a way to enable the operation of the cell without the need of the protection plate (Direct IRAFC concept).
The main components of the final stack (bipolar plates, protection plates, end plates, Al plates, current collectors, MEAs, foam reformers, gaskets) were constructed and are shown in Fig. 15. The constructed final stack according to the contingency plan is shown in Fig. 16. Leak tests and OCV measurements under H2/air feeds were carried out before final system integration and testing. An OCV of 14.3 V (mean value of 0.920-0.970V for each one of 15 cells) was measured at room temperature.
Final system integration was set up as shown in Fig. 17. Fuel Cell Stack contained 15 MEAs (50 cm2/cell active area), 15 Cu-foam based reformers (loaded with ca. 15 g of CuMnAlOx) and additional protection plates according to the indirect internal reforming configuration described previously. The start-up system, including air blower, evaporator and monolithic burner for catalytic combustion of methanol and air, as shown in Fig. 13, has been mounted at the die plate, in order to pre-heat the fuel cell stack (FC) and the combined afterburner/evaporator device downstream. An air duct was built around the FC, using insulation material to avoid temperature losses during start-up time. Cell performance could be monitored with a multimeter by electrical connections at each cell plate. The anode of the FC could be fed either with hydrogen in order to shorten the duration of the start-up procedure, with an evaporated methanol/water-mixture for the internal reforming reaction or purged with nitrogen to avoid the pyrolysis of the electrochemical catalyst of the MEA during cooling down the FC. During start-up the methanol/water-mixture could be heated by the methanol combustion provided by the S/U-burner. While FC operation the heat needed for evaporation of the feed would be obtained from rejected heat from the FC and additional combustion of anode offgas in the afterburner. Additionally a sample-line for µ-GC analysis, introducing nitrogen flow to dilute higher concentrations of methanol and water, was set up at the anode outlet in order to control the methanol conversion of the reforming reaction.
IRAFC power system was operated at 200oC for one month including start-up/shut-down cycles demonstrating the functionality of the unit. Depending on the liquid feed streams, current densities up to 0.18 A/cm2 and power output up to 70 W could be obtained with remarkable repeatability. Specific targets for improvement of the efficiency have been also identified. These are (i) the activity of the reforming catalyst with respect to the specific weight and volume of the system and (ii) the stability of the anode electrocatalysts with respect to carbonaceous residuals and excessive amounts of water leaving the reformer compartment. Both of these issues have been already confronted in the new IRMFC project, where an ultra thin reformer with exceptional activity is being employed and new anode electrocatalysts with high tolerance towards the aforementioned phenomena have been also developed.
Potential Impact:
The IRAFC system goes substantially beyond the state of the art by introducing highly ambitious and challenging, novel ideas via combination of different research fields, including Materials/Polymer Science, Surface Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Heterogeneous Catalysis, Reaction Engineering and Mechanical Engineering. The IRAFC project objectives and results aim at opening new scientific and engineering prospects, which may allow easier penetration of the fuel cell system in the energy market.
Its core innovation is the incorporation of an alcohol reforming catalyst into/adjacent to the anode (bi-functional anode) of the HT-PEM fuel cell. In order to obtain an economically viable solution towards the H2 economy, low-cost materials (electrolytes, catalysts/electrocatalysts and bipolar plates) and production techniques, with easy maintenance and high durability and stability are needed. The successful implementation of the IRAFC novel, low-cost materials and hydrogen devices will open new perspectives in fuel cell technology, a fact that will contribute to the objectives of the European Platform to regain world leadership and offer substantial scientific, economic, energy and environmental benefits.
The goal of the consortium in this project was the development of the essential know how in the construction and manufacture of high temperature MEAs that can be integrated in energy production systems, fulfilling the needs of both the fuel provider and the high temperature fuel cell stack manufacturer. The successful effectuation of all partners' technologies, will now lead in the development and commercialization of an Internal Reforming Alcohol High Temperature PEM Fuel Cell Stack. It is a great technical advantage that might boost the entire market of Fuel cells, since the commercialization of these products demands reformate based fuel cells with operating temperatures over 150oC.
In particular the integration of an alcohol reformer into the HT-PEMFC will eliminate the need for separate fuel-processing systems. The excess heat produced by the operation of the fuel cell can be used directly to drive the endothermic reforming reaction, thus eliminating the need for heat exchangers and other voluminous supporting equipment. The integration of the reforming catalyst into the fuel cell itself enables the steam reforming reaction to efficiently proceed at lower temperatures (<220oC), due to induced kinetic, electrokinetic and promotional effects.
Social impact
Quality of Life
The every-day life benefits of Fuel Cells primarily relate to the great reduction in air pollution emissions that FCs can achieve in comparison with the combustion of fossil fuels.
Fuel cell engines will create:
…economic benefits...
• Energy savings will result in capital investment towards other socioeconomic activities thus boosting employment
• Highly specialised jobs will be created in different regions of E.U. since the technology transfer of such elaborated techniques is rather difficult.
• In parallel fuel cell development will intensify the massive production of renewable fuels (like methanol by the CO2 reduction with renewable H2, or bio ethanol) with positive effect on the economy of rural areas
• The European economy will no longer depend on imported oil or gas, which is a significant instability factor for industrialized economies. The reduction of dependence from oil markets will secure the European economies.
...energy benefits...
• Energy produced by a fuel cell will be characterized as high quality energy because of the high conversion efficiency from chemical to electrical energy (~50%) almost twice as high compared to internal combustion engines, and because of the zero emissions of pollutants and greenhouse gases (due to the recycling of CO2 to produce renewable fuels) to the environment.
• The energy security of EC countries will be significantly enhanced.
... and environmental benefits.
• The extensive use of fuel cells will cause a steep reduction of air pollutants in metropolitan areas. Such a scenario will certainly improve the living conditions and infrastructures in less favored regions through for example rural electrification and consequently through the economic development and the quality of life in these regions.
Dissemination of the information to the scientific community is done through the publication of selected information from the experiments and data analysis of the project in international “peer-reviewed” journals and relevant conferences. Dissemination of the information to the relevant industrial world follows more or less the same mechanism of publications, scientific conferences and public website.
The project partners have generated more than 15 papers published in respectable journals and have attended numerous conferences related to fuel cells. One patent application has also been submitted. Details are provided in the next sections.
The exploitable results, of the IRAFC project, will be addressing the needs of universities, polymer and membrane producers, electrocatalysts and electrode producers, MEA producers, stack and energy production systems manufacturers, while the expected results of the projects will lead to the low cost production of materials (electrolytes, catalysts, bipolar plates and MEAs), and substitution of the voluminous fuel-processor-assisted fuel cell systems with the high volume power density IRAFC. The individual results can be used in other applications of the hydrogen economy as well, e.g. the membranes can be used in electrolysers, hydrogen pumps, and CO2 electroreduction.
More specifically, the successful creation of an Internal Reforming Alcohol High-Temperature PEM Fuel Cell (IRAFC) can be viewed as an enabling technology, opening the road to a wide variety of new applications and also a wide variety of strategic fuels which could increasingly come from renewable sources. The Internal Reforming Alcohol High-Temperature PEM Fuel Cell (IRAFC) main innovation stems from the fact that liquid fuel, in this case methanol is used. This makes the system more simple (no complex hydrogen storage bottles needed) and more compact, thus saving valuable space. Hence, the first group of applications for this system consists of mobile applications, including military applications and hence both dissemination and exploitation of this technology should target this sector first. Mobile applications include a large variety of applications including forklifts, 2/3 wheeled, locomotive (train), barge, automobile (including military automobiles), sailing yacht, long-haul truck, mid-large marine, commercial aircraft as well as portable devices such as mobile generators, soldier power and electronics.
The consortium will take part in relevant technology transfer brokerage events which normally take place in the framework of large conferences or sectoral exhibitions. Various European technology platforms related to the industries will also be target groups as they concentrate the most relevant and key players in the sector.
As already mentioned the technology utilises methanol as fuel and the project will also consider ethanol as an alternative liquid fuel. Hence this will open the road to the use of more types of liquid fuels, and especially those coming from renewable energy sources such as bio-ethanol (from biomass) or methanol products from renewable sources other than the use of natural gas. In this case, the European technology platforms dealing with these will also be kept informed.
One already identified end user of the Internal Reforming Alcohol HT system is FRIGOGLASS ΑΕΒΕ one of the global leaders in beverage coolers. Frigoglass has already shown interest in using HT PEM fuel cell systems in order to provide power to their refrigerators, which will be located in remote, off grid areas where back up power supply is needed.
List of Websites:
http://irafc.iceht.forth.gr/index.php
The Consortium
IRAFC groups together the different types of players involved in development of materials for application in PEM fuel cells: Advent, UMCS, Nedstack, CNRS, FORTH and IMM. This specific partnership has advanced knowledge, techniques and expertise in the fields of polymer electrolyte and reforming catalyst synthesis, materials and concepts for high temperature PEM applications as well as in their fabrication and testing.
The goal
The ultimate goal of the project was to deliver an internal-alcohol-reforming, high-temperature, PEM fuel cell (IRAFC) with the following characteristics:
(i) Power of 0.15W/cm2 at a potential of 0.7 V and operating temperature of 220oC,
(ii) Specific (W/kg) and volumetric (W/m3) power density similar to current, state-of-the-art high-temperature PEM fuel cells operating on hydrogen.
How to get there
Achievement of the project goal required development of the critical components of the IRAFC:
(i) New polymer membranes with improved thermal and chemical stability able to operate at 220oC,
(ii) New alcohol reforming catalysts with improved activity and stability able to provide stable hydrogen production in the anode environment,
(iii) Bipolar plates specifically designed under the requirements of IRAFC operation.
Project Results
After 42 months of project duration, the partners have successfully completed their efforts per the following:
• New type cross-linked membranes based on aromatic polyethers were developed and successfully tested for 700h (0,7V at 0,2A/cm2 for hydrogen-air feed gases) at 210oC.
• CuMnAlOx catalysts can effectively operate at 200°C for at least 500 h with a 17% decline in activity.
• New high temperature composite bipolar plate materials have been specially designed and produced.
• Thorough CFD simulation of different options of the geometry of the bipolar plates, the optimum geometry best suited to achieve flow equipartition and sufficient contact of the hydrogen formed with the fuel cell membrane was found.
• A single-cell of a high-temperature, polymer electrolyte fuel cell incorporating the above.
• The main components of the final IRAFC unit have been prepared (reformers, MEAs, bipolar plates, peripherals) and system integration/testing has been succesfully carried out.
Project Context and Objectives:
The main objective of the IRAFC project was the development of an internal reforming alcohol high temperature PEM fuel cell (Fig. 1). Accomplishment of the project objective was made through:
• Preparation of robust polymer electrolyte membranes for HT-PEMFCs, which are functional within the temperature range of 190-220oC.
• Development of alcohol (methanol or ethanol) reforming catalysts for the production of CO-free hydrogen in the temperature range of HT PEMFCs, i.e. at 190-220oC.
• Integration of reforming catalyst and high temperature MEA in a compact Internal Reforming Alcohol High Temperature PEMFC (IRAFC).
The compact system does away with conventional fuel processors and allows for efficient heat management, since the “waste” heat produced by the fuel cell is in-situ utilized to drive the endothermic reforming reaction. The targeted power density of the system is 0.15 W/cm2 at a cell voltage of 0.7V. Thus, the concepts of a catalytic reformer and of a fuel cell are combined in a single, simplified direct alcohol (e.g. methanol) High Temperature PEM fuel cell reactor. The heart of the system is the membrane electrode assembly (MEA) comprising a high-temperature proton-conducting electrolyte sandwiched between the anodic (reforming catalyst + Pt/C) and cathodic Pt/C gas diffusion electrodes. According to the configuration and the operating conditions described above, the IRAFC is auto thermal, highly efficient and with zero CO emissions. In addition, the direct consumption of H2 by the MEA (fuel cell) and the electrochemical promotion effect enhances the kinetics of reforming reactions, thus facilitating the efficient operation of the reforming catalyst at temperatures below 220°C.
The novelty of the proposed technological approach can be summarized in the following operating features:
• The use of active reforming catalysts integrated into the anodic compartment, which will produce H2 in-situ by utilizing directly the waste heat of the electrochemical process to cover the energy demands of the endothermic steam reforming reaction.
• H2 is readily oxidized on the Pt anode electrocatalysts into protons with the high electrokinetic efficiency of a H2 High Temperature PEM fuel cell. Depletion of H2 has a positive effect on the kinetics of the reforming reaction.
• The proposed reforming catalysts produce minimal amounts of CO (less than 1000ppm at 210oC, which nevertheless are not an issue for the Pt electrocatalyst due the high operating temperature of the cell.
• Novel high-temperature polymer electrolytes (e.g. the ADVENT TPS® polymer electrolytes) are employed, which are not permeable to methanol or ethanol.
The kinetic and electrokinetic efficiency of the high temperature system is enhanced by the separate functions of the reforming catalyst and Pt electrocatalyst.
Project Results:
The project main achievements are mentioned below:
• New type cross-linked membranes based on aromatic polyethers bearing main and/or side chain pyridine groups and side chain cross-linkable functionalities were developed and successfully tested for 700h (0,7V at 0,2A/cm2 for hydrogen-air feed gases) at 210oC.
• CuMnAlOx catalysts can effectively operate at 200°C for at least 500 h with a 17% decline in activity (Methanol conversions higher than 80%, if carefully preactivated).
• New high temperature composite bipolar plate materials have been specially designed and produced for this high temperature application (After 170h stable operation, 0.15mV/h degradation) at 200oC.
• Thorough CFD simulation of different options of the geometry of the bipolar plates, the optimum geometry best suited to achieve flow equipartition and sufficient contact of the hydrogen formed with the fuel cell membrane was found.
• In order to avoid possible dissolution of the reforming catalyst into the H3PO4 and corrosion of metal substrates anchoring the reforming catalyst an additional protection layer was added.
• A single-cell of a high-temperature, polymer electrolyte fuel cell incorporating ADVENT phosphoric acid doped copolymer and a methanol reforming catalyst in the anode has been constructed and tested at 200-210oC demonstrating the functionality of the unit. Specific targets for improvement of the efficiency have been also identified. These are the activity of the reforming catalyst and the thermal stability of the membrane for operation above 200oC.
• A CAD model of the integrated fuel cell stack and of the final IRAFC system was prepared. Peripherals for the BoP of the 100W IRAFC unit were developed.
• The main components of the final IRAFC unit have been prepared (reformers, MEAs, bipolar plates, peripherals) and system integration/testing has been succesfully carried out.
New type cross-linked membranes
The main target was the development of new aromatic polyethers bearing side cross linkable groups like carboxy, double and triple bonds. These new copolymers and terpolymers bearing the respective groups were synthesized and thoroughly characterized in order to examine their suitability for applications in high temperatures PEMFCs. Furthermore, different cross-linking methodologies were tested.
More specifically, carboxy containing polyethers (Scheme 1) were cross-linked through oxadiazole bond formation. Different reaction and reaction conditions were tested and the cross-linking efficiency was evaluated by DMA and solubility test (solubility decrease). Among the different methods the one based on the bistetrazole showed better cross-linking efficiency.
Copolymers and terpolymers bearing side double bonds (Scheme 2) were also synthesized and characterized accordingly, showing high thermal and oxidative stability. Various copolymers or terpolymers structures were used in order to control the phosphoric acid doping ability. Selected copolymers or terpolymers were cross-linked using bisazides as cross-linking agents at high temperatures. Different cross-linking conditions were used in order to achieve the optimum cross-linking efficiency which was confirmed either by DMA or by solubility test. In other words, the cross-linked membranes showed higher glass transition temperatures as well as limited solubility compared to the non-cross-linked ones.
Finally, copolymers bearing side triple bonds (Scheme 3) were synthesized and characterized, showing high thermal stability and very good mechanical properties. Cross-linked membranes have been prepared successfully by thermal treatment. However, these membranes cannot be used for further testing/evaluation, since they showed disintegration with time when doped in phosphoric acid.
Among the different methodologies used for cross-linking the one based on the introduction of side double bonds and the consequent thermal reaction with bisazide or the cationic polymerization of the double bonds in the presence of phosphoric acid, at high temperatures during their doping, were proven more efficient. The cross-linked membranes show excellent film quality, were insoluble in all used solvents and showed increased glass transition temperatures.
The doped cross-linked membranes obtained from the polymers bearing side double bond functionalities, were used for MEA preparation and single cell testing. These MEAs were tested at temperatures up to 220°C (Fig. 2). The results are promising since high ionic conductivities, well above 10-1S/cm in some cases, and performances as high as 0,7V at 0,2 A/cm2 for hydrogen-air feed gases were obtained.
The operating stability of these materials at temperatures above 200°C was examined and a stable performance for about 550h at 210oC was demonstrated (Fig .3).
Alcohol Reforming Catalysts
The reference CuMnOx was improved by addition of aluminium as promoter. Optimal loading of Al was determined.
• The effect of phosphoric acid vapours on catalyst performance was examined.
• Synthesis of CuMnOx catalyst from organic salt precursors did not lead to encouraging results.
• Cu/In2O3 catalysts were tested as alternative formulation, which did not outperform the CuMnOx.
• Palladium-zinc oxide-based catalyst stabilized with alumina or chromium oxide show high activity, selectivity, stability and sufficient hydrogen production rate in the steam reforming of methanol that fit the minimum requirements of the project.
• The best performance showed palladium catalysts (15 wt.% of Pd) with zinc oxide-chromium oxide support. They show excellent selectivity, high stability and did not deactivate after exposition to air.
• The high activity of catalysts was related to the formation of PdZn alloy during pre-activation with hydrogen or methanol-water vapours reaction mixture at 350oC.
• Other noble metal (Pt, Rh) containing catalysts were also tested for methanol steam reforming at low temperatures, which showed inferior performance compared to CuMnOx and palladium-zinc oxide formulations.
• The comparison of catalytic properties performed by all prepared catalysts revealed that the CuMnOx promoted with alumina showed highest activity (full conversion at a VHSV of 0.67 L/(gcat h). The palladium-zinc oxide-based formulations are the second choice catalysts for the low temperature (200oC) steam reforming of methanol.
Among the different catalysts used for methanol reforming, the ones based on copper-manganese and on palladium were chosen for optimization in respect to their use as low temperature methanol reforming catalysts. Doping of CuMnOx catalyst had a beneficial effect on catalytic activity towards hydrogen production via methanol reforming (Fig. 4). CuMnAlOx catalyst can effectively operate at 200°C (Fig. 5) for at least 500 h with a 17% decline in activity if carefully preactivated. Methanol conversions higher than 90% were achieved at 210oC even in the presence of 30% MeOH in the feed.
Also palladium-zinc oxide-supported catalysts were developed where the activity and selectivity of palladium-zinc oxide-supported catalysts are fairly stable. That kind of catalysts is resistant to shuts down and exposes to air at room temperature and at 180oC, as well as to the storage in air. They enable to achieve very high H2 and CO2 as well as low CO (lower than 2 %) selectivity at 200oC. Total methanol conversion can be achieved by adjusting the contact time of the catalysts with the methanol-water vapours reaction mixture. The advantage of the palladium-zinc oxide based catalysts is also their easy activation at low temperatures.
Both optimized catalytic formulations were successfully supported on metallic foams in order to be incorporated into the anode compartment according to IRAFC design. Soft chemical route (i.e. washcoating) was selected for scale-up synthesis, while special attention was paid on (i) the achievement of methanol reforming conversion values higher than 95% in order to avoid poisoning of MEAs by unreacted methanol (ii) phosphoric acid poisoning (an additional thin plate was placed between reformer and MEA in order to avoid catalyst degradation by phosphoric acid poisoning).
The activity and selectivity of palladium-zinc oxide-supported catalysts are fairly stable since only small deactivation during initial period of its work is observed. That kind of catalysts is resistant to shuts down and exposes to air at room temperature and at 180oC, as well as to the storage in air. They enable to achieve very high H2 and CO2 as well as low CO (lower than 2%) selectivity at 200oC. Total methanol conversion can be achieved by adjusting the contact time of the catalysts with the methanol-water vapours reaction mixture. The advantage of the palladium-zinc oxide based catalysts is also their easy activation at low temperatures.
Catalysts of palladium-zinc oxide supported on high-surface area conductive carbon with the optimum zinc/palladium molar ratio of 2.5-3.5 are easy activated at low temperatures and they are as stable in the steam reforming of methanol as catalysts without carbon. They very quickly recover their activity and selectivity after shuts down and exposes to air, as well as to the short- and long-term storage in air. Their activity is only a little lower while the carbon monoxide selectivity – only somewhat larger than those of the best catalyst without carbon support. The good activity and selectivity of the catalysts are ensured by the palladium-zinc alloy presence.
Electrochemical evaluation of new MEAs and electroreforming anode catalysts
Copper-based reforming catalyst was placed adjacent to ADVENT Technologies high temperature polymer electrolyte membrane/electrode assembly in an Internal Reforming Methanol Single Cell and tested for their electrochemical properties and chemical stability under various methanol/water anode feedstreams. Polarization measurements and ac impedance spectroscopy combined with measurements of reactor outlet composition were carried out. Methanol is being reformed inside the anode compartment of the fuel cell at 200°C producing H2, which is readily oxidized at the anode to produce electricity. The reformer provides enough hydrogen supply for efficient fuel cell operation at 600 mV with 0.2 A cm-2 and λΗ2 = 1.2. However, unreacted MeOH (~5%) in combination with low H2 content poisons the anode electrode and the cell performance rapidly decreases (Figs. 6 and 7). Gradual recovery of the initial performance under pure H2 is observed after switching to pure H2. A slight improvement of the cell’s design by the introduction of a pre-reforming step significantly improves the electrocatalytic behaviour.
Taking into account the strong acidic environment and possible dissolution of copper catalyst into the electrolyte, long term stability tests have been performed in the presence and absence of MEA (Fig. 8). In the absence of MEA, the catalytic performance was quite stable for 125 h (MeOH conversion higher than 90%). However, in the presence of MEA, MeOH conversion was rapidly reduced by 50% after 80 h on stream and remained stable at 45%. Extensive poisoning of reformer by H3PO4 is the main reason for such a behavior, as it was evidenced by post mortem analysis by SEM/EDX
Taking into account the thickness of the reformer (ranging from 10 to 3 mm), the morphology of the top surface of reformer was slightly different in color from the bottom and mid part of the reformer. Thus, a modification of the physicochemical nature of the copper was present. Despite the fact that such a modification is limited on the top or/and near-top surface area of the foam-based reformer, the poisoning effect of phosphoric acid is inevitable and a contingency plan was activated. Thus, an extra thin protection plate was added in the fuel cell in order to avoid direct contact of reformer and MEA and avoid diffusion of the phosphoric acid in the catalytic bed. Such a configuration will also overcome the aforementioned negative effect of unreacted MeOH on the MEA performance.
Stack components and design
Due to the internal reforming reaction that takes place in the MEA by incorporation of metal foam as catalyst carrier the main issue is the investigation of different channel geometries that assure equipartition of the reaction feed. Thorough CFD simulation of different options of the geometry of the bipolar plates revealed that the geometry best suited to achieve flow equipartition and sufficient contact of the hydrogen formed with the fuel cell membrane is the trapezoidal channel geometry introduced into the foam itself as shown in Fig.9. CFD simulation shows that any channel geometry on the bipolar plate itself leads to bypassing of the main part of the reaction feed. This is caused by a high catalyst load which results in a higher pressure drop of the foam compared to free channel geometry on the bipolar plate. Therefore the geometry has to be introduced into the foam itself to enforce the pass-through of the reaction feed via the metal foam catalyst.
Methanol reforming catalysts were incorporated onto copper foams by shaping them through Electro Discharge Machining (EDM), calcining the foams to improve the catalyst adhesion and wash-coating the catalysts as shown in Fig. 10. The foams were then polished and integrated into test cells for the construction of the short and final stack.
A re-design of the fuel cell stack was performed. Much simpler air-cooling through fins was chosen and the stack pre-heating is also done through these fins. The re-design reduced the power consumption of the BoP components.
A revised CAD model of the system was set up, which is shown in Fig.11. Utilizing the results from the simulation, the BoP components were constructed or purchased respectively in the reporting period. Fig. 12 shows the heat-exchangers HX-01 and HX-02 built by IMM, Fig. 13 the evaporator/ afterburner built by IMM and the metallic, electrically heated start-up monolith purchased from Emitec and coated with catalyst by IMM.
The sub-system of methanol evaporator, air blower and monolithic burner was testedseparately. As shown in Fig. 14, 200 L/min air could be pre-heated to a temperature of more than 200°C within less than 5 min. the pre-heating power required for the burner monolith amounted to only 71 W for a duration of 45 s.
Extensive poisoning of the methanol reforming catalyst by phosphoric acid activated a contingency plan with respect to the bipolar plates. The solution for preventing the reaction of the catalyst with H3PO4 was to place a thin graphite plate between the reforming and the electro-catalyst (Indirect IRAFC concept), which will prevent the corrosion of the reforming catalyst while allowing the current collection. The associated contingency plan with respect to phosphoric acid poisoning was based on the design and construction of appropriate bipolar plates. Thus, new cells were developed. Long side fins instead of liquid cooling plates were introduced in the modified plates. The anode plates were designed in such a way to enable the operation of the cell without the need of the protection plate (Direct IRAFC concept).
The main components of the final stack (bipolar plates, protection plates, end plates, Al plates, current collectors, MEAs, foam reformers, gaskets) were constructed and are shown in Fig. 15. The constructed final stack according to the contingency plan is shown in Fig. 16. Leak tests and OCV measurements under H2/air feeds were carried out before final system integration and testing. An OCV of 14.3 V (mean value of 0.920-0.970V for each one of 15 cells) was measured at room temperature.
Final system integration was set up as shown in Fig. 17. Fuel Cell Stack contained 15 MEAs (50 cm2/cell active area), 15 Cu-foam based reformers (loaded with ca. 15 g of CuMnAlOx) and additional protection plates according to the indirect internal reforming configuration described previously. The start-up system, including air blower, evaporator and monolithic burner for catalytic combustion of methanol and air, as shown in Fig. 13, has been mounted at the die plate, in order to pre-heat the fuel cell stack (FC) and the combined afterburner/evaporator device downstream. An air duct was built around the FC, using insulation material to avoid temperature losses during start-up time. Cell performance could be monitored with a multimeter by electrical connections at each cell plate. The anode of the FC could be fed either with hydrogen in order to shorten the duration of the start-up procedure, with an evaporated methanol/water-mixture for the internal reforming reaction or purged with nitrogen to avoid the pyrolysis of the electrochemical catalyst of the MEA during cooling down the FC. During start-up the methanol/water-mixture could be heated by the methanol combustion provided by the S/U-burner. While FC operation the heat needed for evaporation of the feed would be obtained from rejected heat from the FC and additional combustion of anode offgas in the afterburner. Additionally a sample-line for µ-GC analysis, introducing nitrogen flow to dilute higher concentrations of methanol and water, was set up at the anode outlet in order to control the methanol conversion of the reforming reaction.
IRAFC power system was operated at 200oC for one month including start-up/shut-down cycles demonstrating the functionality of the unit. Depending on the liquid feed streams, current densities up to 0.18 A/cm2 and power output up to 70 W could be obtained with remarkable repeatability. Specific targets for improvement of the efficiency have been also identified. These are (i) the activity of the reforming catalyst with respect to the specific weight and volume of the system and (ii) the stability of the anode electrocatalysts with respect to carbonaceous residuals and excessive amounts of water leaving the reformer compartment. Both of these issues have been already confronted in the new IRMFC project, where an ultra thin reformer with exceptional activity is being employed and new anode electrocatalysts with high tolerance towards the aforementioned phenomena have been also developed.
Potential Impact:
The IRAFC system goes substantially beyond the state of the art by introducing highly ambitious and challenging, novel ideas via combination of different research fields, including Materials/Polymer Science, Surface Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Heterogeneous Catalysis, Reaction Engineering and Mechanical Engineering. The IRAFC project objectives and results aim at opening new scientific and engineering prospects, which may allow easier penetration of the fuel cell system in the energy market.
Its core innovation is the incorporation of an alcohol reforming catalyst into/adjacent to the anode (bi-functional anode) of the HT-PEM fuel cell. In order to obtain an economically viable solution towards the H2 economy, low-cost materials (electrolytes, catalysts/electrocatalysts and bipolar plates) and production techniques, with easy maintenance and high durability and stability are needed. The successful implementation of the IRAFC novel, low-cost materials and hydrogen devices will open new perspectives in fuel cell technology, a fact that will contribute to the objectives of the European Platform to regain world leadership and offer substantial scientific, economic, energy and environmental benefits.
The goal of the consortium in this project was the development of the essential know how in the construction and manufacture of high temperature MEAs that can be integrated in energy production systems, fulfilling the needs of both the fuel provider and the high temperature fuel cell stack manufacturer. The successful effectuation of all partners' technologies, will now lead in the development and commercialization of an Internal Reforming Alcohol High Temperature PEM Fuel Cell Stack. It is a great technical advantage that might boost the entire market of Fuel cells, since the commercialization of these products demands reformate based fuel cells with operating temperatures over 150oC.
In particular the integration of an alcohol reformer into the HT-PEMFC will eliminate the need for separate fuel-processing systems. The excess heat produced by the operation of the fuel cell can be used directly to drive the endothermic reforming reaction, thus eliminating the need for heat exchangers and other voluminous supporting equipment. The integration of the reforming catalyst into the fuel cell itself enables the steam reforming reaction to efficiently proceed at lower temperatures (<220oC), due to induced kinetic, electrokinetic and promotional effects.
Social impact
Quality of Life
The every-day life benefits of Fuel Cells primarily relate to the great reduction in air pollution emissions that FCs can achieve in comparison with the combustion of fossil fuels.
Fuel cell engines will create:
…economic benefits...
• Energy savings will result in capital investment towards other socioeconomic activities thus boosting employment
• Highly specialised jobs will be created in different regions of E.U. since the technology transfer of such elaborated techniques is rather difficult.
• In parallel fuel cell development will intensify the massive production of renewable fuels (like methanol by the CO2 reduction with renewable H2, or bio ethanol) with positive effect on the economy of rural areas
• The European economy will no longer depend on imported oil or gas, which is a significant instability factor for industrialized economies. The reduction of dependence from oil markets will secure the European economies.
...energy benefits...
• Energy produced by a fuel cell will be characterized as high quality energy because of the high conversion efficiency from chemical to electrical energy (~50%) almost twice as high compared to internal combustion engines, and because of the zero emissions of pollutants and greenhouse gases (due to the recycling of CO2 to produce renewable fuels) to the environment.
• The energy security of EC countries will be significantly enhanced.
... and environmental benefits.
• The extensive use of fuel cells will cause a steep reduction of air pollutants in metropolitan areas. Such a scenario will certainly improve the living conditions and infrastructures in less favored regions through for example rural electrification and consequently through the economic development and the quality of life in these regions.
Dissemination of the information to the scientific community is done through the publication of selected information from the experiments and data analysis of the project in international “peer-reviewed” journals and relevant conferences. Dissemination of the information to the relevant industrial world follows more or less the same mechanism of publications, scientific conferences and public website.
The project partners have generated more than 15 papers published in respectable journals and have attended numerous conferences related to fuel cells. One patent application has also been submitted. Details are provided in the next sections.
The exploitable results, of the IRAFC project, will be addressing the needs of universities, polymer and membrane producers, electrocatalysts and electrode producers, MEA producers, stack and energy production systems manufacturers, while the expected results of the projects will lead to the low cost production of materials (electrolytes, catalysts, bipolar plates and MEAs), and substitution of the voluminous fuel-processor-assisted fuel cell systems with the high volume power density IRAFC. The individual results can be used in other applications of the hydrogen economy as well, e.g. the membranes can be used in electrolysers, hydrogen pumps, and CO2 electroreduction.
More specifically, the successful creation of an Internal Reforming Alcohol High-Temperature PEM Fuel Cell (IRAFC) can be viewed as an enabling technology, opening the road to a wide variety of new applications and also a wide variety of strategic fuels which could increasingly come from renewable sources. The Internal Reforming Alcohol High-Temperature PEM Fuel Cell (IRAFC) main innovation stems from the fact that liquid fuel, in this case methanol is used. This makes the system more simple (no complex hydrogen storage bottles needed) and more compact, thus saving valuable space. Hence, the first group of applications for this system consists of mobile applications, including military applications and hence both dissemination and exploitation of this technology should target this sector first. Mobile applications include a large variety of applications including forklifts, 2/3 wheeled, locomotive (train), barge, automobile (including military automobiles), sailing yacht, long-haul truck, mid-large marine, commercial aircraft as well as portable devices such as mobile generators, soldier power and electronics.
The consortium will take part in relevant technology transfer brokerage events which normally take place in the framework of large conferences or sectoral exhibitions. Various European technology platforms related to the industries will also be target groups as they concentrate the most relevant and key players in the sector.
As already mentioned the technology utilises methanol as fuel and the project will also consider ethanol as an alternative liquid fuel. Hence this will open the road to the use of more types of liquid fuels, and especially those coming from renewable energy sources such as bio-ethanol (from biomass) or methanol products from renewable sources other than the use of natural gas. In this case, the European technology platforms dealing with these will also be kept informed.
One already identified end user of the Internal Reforming Alcohol HT system is FRIGOGLASS ΑΕΒΕ one of the global leaders in beverage coolers. Frigoglass has already shown interest in using HT PEM fuel cell systems in order to provide power to their refrigerators, which will be located in remote, off grid areas where back up power supply is needed.
List of Websites:
http://irafc.iceht.forth.gr/index.php
