Periodic Reporting for period 4 - TIMBER (Northern Europe's timber resource - chronology, origin and exploitation)
Berichtszeitraum: 2021-03-01 bis 2022-02-28
In the project ‘Northern Europe’s timber resource - chronology, origin and exploitation’ (TIMBER) we examined the history of one of the most important resources that past people have relied upon – timber. Timber and wood has always been an essential material for people. It is a fuel, and an invaluable building material – for shelter, utensils, furniture and art; for transport, storage, defence, even monuments. Studying the timber humans have left behind allowed us to determine the precise chronology of material remains, and examine the usage, availability, exploitation and trade of this bulk commodity.
We studied the changes in the way people in Northern Europe attained and used timber taking a long timeframe of six centuries from AD 1100 to 1700. Some regions begin to experience a shortage in the timber supply, and we see that they import their timber from regions with surplus.
We discovered exactly where the timber came from, the proportion of local to imported timber and the reason for timber import. Shortage of large long-lived trees is not the only driving factor that causes the import of the resource. Different prices of timber from differing economies seems also to play a role.
Timber and science
Dendrochronology was the main method that we used to date and find the place of origin of timber remains in the archaeological record. Isotope analysis was used to identify the origin of timber for which tree-ring data is lacking. Ancient DNA analysis of historic timber allowed identification to the haplo-group level, to indicate timber origin. But most importantly, a combination of provenance determination techniques (dendrochronology, isotopes and aDNA) strengthened the precision to which the source of timber is identified.
Timber and our human past
Using the sciences that shed light on date and source of timber remains we could then ask questions of the material, pertaining to past people’s use of this resource: The trade in bulk building timber gradually came to dominate the Northern European timber resource procurement, but this is different from region to region, depending on how soon economies had used up their local supplies. We have presented a theory for where the oaks used to make the numerous so-called “Baltic” wainscots, panels, boards and planks, that were delivered to ports in Western Europe over many centuries, actually grew. We have compared the empirical dataset from tree-ring studies of our archaeological and built heritage with the evidence from historical sources. We have seen patterns of forest depletion and regeneration in the tree-ring evidence. We see that timbers from different sources differ from each other in terms of quality. It is clear that trade in specialised timber products versus trade in bulk timber show differing regional specialisation and chronology.
We studied the changes in the way people in Northern Europe attained and used timber taking a long timeframe of six centuries from AD 1100 to 1700. Some regions begin to experience a shortage in the timber supply, and we see that they import their timber from regions with surplus.
We discovered exactly where the timber came from, the proportion of local to imported timber and the reason for timber import. Shortage of large long-lived trees is not the only driving factor that causes the import of the resource. Different prices of timber from differing economies seems also to play a role.
Timber and science
Dendrochronology was the main method that we used to date and find the place of origin of timber remains in the archaeological record. Isotope analysis was used to identify the origin of timber for which tree-ring data is lacking. Ancient DNA analysis of historic timber allowed identification to the haplo-group level, to indicate timber origin. But most importantly, a combination of provenance determination techniques (dendrochronology, isotopes and aDNA) strengthened the precision to which the source of timber is identified.
Timber and our human past
Using the sciences that shed light on date and source of timber remains we could then ask questions of the material, pertaining to past people’s use of this resource: The trade in bulk building timber gradually came to dominate the Northern European timber resource procurement, but this is different from region to region, depending on how soon economies had used up their local supplies. We have presented a theory for where the oaks used to make the numerous so-called “Baltic” wainscots, panels, boards and planks, that were delivered to ports in Western Europe over many centuries, actually grew. We have compared the empirical dataset from tree-ring studies of our archaeological and built heritage with the evidence from historical sources. We have seen patterns of forest depletion and regeneration in the tree-ring evidence. We see that timbers from different sources differ from each other in terms of quality. It is clear that trade in specialised timber products versus trade in bulk timber show differing regional specialisation and chronology.
Vasa, a Swedish warship, built in Stockholm in 1628, sank on her first voyage in Stockholm Harbour. Vasa is housed at the Vasa Museum. Purchase records from the time tell us that timber was bought in eastern Sweden. But timber was also purchased from Riga and Königsberg (modern day Kaliningrad) and from Amsterdam. The dendrochronological study of the timber in the ship revealed which timbers come from these diverse sources, and where in the ship it was used. These analyses confirmed that there were indeed timbers from at least four distinct sources in the ship, including a Baltic source and a west Swedish source. It is showing us that even in a highly forested region like Sweden, still timber was imported from abroad.
The Bøle Ship is a wreck found in the river Skienselva near Bøle in southern Norway and is dated to 1380s. It is housed at the Norwegian Maritime Museum. This ship sank with a cargo of whetstones from Eidsborg. We found that every timber analysed is from the southern Baltic region, more specifically, from around the mouth of the Vistula River. Even the keel, which might be taken as the foundation timber for the ship, has a southern Baltic source. Rather than evidence for transport of timber, this ship was built at the mouth of the Vistula, exploiting the abundant timber available in that region at this time.
As a contrast to this study, we examined the Bremen Ship from 1378, found in the river Weser just outside Bremen. Archaeological observations suggest that the ship never sailed, and it was thus probably built near to where it was found. It is housed at the Deutsches Schifffahrtsmuseum in Bremerhaven. Extensive dendrochronology of this wreck demonstrated that the ship was made of local oaks. We have been examining the timber of the Bremen ship to categorize the quality of the wood used. It seems that the hinterland of Bremen had, by the late 14th century, become a quite open landscape. Why did the ship builders use this difficult material to build their ship?
Oak from the Baltic was another vital study. For many centuries, from around the mid-14th century onwards, oak from the Hanseatic towns along the Baltic coast was being exported westwards. We often see this material in the archaeological remains in Western Europe, but it is usually not as bulky building timber. Rather, it is as staves, clapboards and planking. This is also reflected in the written record. Timber cargos in the form of planks, wainscots, clapboards and staves in ships passing from the Baltic Sea to the west are listed. Churches were decorated with panels and altarpieces made from Baltic oak and later fine art works were painted on panels made from it. We know of this trade also from the written record, but it is rare to find historical oak in this region. It seems that as the oak was sent to markets for export, people built with pine locally. From our analyses, we have however presented a theory on where this oak was growing.
The Bøle Ship is a wreck found in the river Skienselva near Bøle in southern Norway and is dated to 1380s. It is housed at the Norwegian Maritime Museum. This ship sank with a cargo of whetstones from Eidsborg. We found that every timber analysed is from the southern Baltic region, more specifically, from around the mouth of the Vistula River. Even the keel, which might be taken as the foundation timber for the ship, has a southern Baltic source. Rather than evidence for transport of timber, this ship was built at the mouth of the Vistula, exploiting the abundant timber available in that region at this time.
As a contrast to this study, we examined the Bremen Ship from 1378, found in the river Weser just outside Bremen. Archaeological observations suggest that the ship never sailed, and it was thus probably built near to where it was found. It is housed at the Deutsches Schifffahrtsmuseum in Bremerhaven. Extensive dendrochronology of this wreck demonstrated that the ship was made of local oaks. We have been examining the timber of the Bremen ship to categorize the quality of the wood used. It seems that the hinterland of Bremen had, by the late 14th century, become a quite open landscape. Why did the ship builders use this difficult material to build their ship?
Oak from the Baltic was another vital study. For many centuries, from around the mid-14th century onwards, oak from the Hanseatic towns along the Baltic coast was being exported westwards. We often see this material in the archaeological remains in Western Europe, but it is usually not as bulky building timber. Rather, it is as staves, clapboards and planking. This is also reflected in the written record. Timber cargos in the form of planks, wainscots, clapboards and staves in ships passing from the Baltic Sea to the west are listed. Churches were decorated with panels and altarpieces made from Baltic oak and later fine art works were painted on panels made from it. We know of this trade also from the written record, but it is rare to find historical oak in this region. It seems that as the oak was sent to markets for export, people built with pine locally. From our analyses, we have however presented a theory on where this oak was growing.
The TIMBER project has been breaking boundaries of science on many levels. We have examined the chronology, origin and exploitation of timber across Northern Europe. To address questions of the chronology of timber usage the tree-ring analysis is the key anchor for our case studies. Combining this precision with the level of detail that we can achieve examining historical records we looked at how the material evidence agrees or conflicts with the written.
In terms of the timber origin, the tree-ring studies allowed us to identify where the historic timber originally grew. But because of gaps in this knowledge, we examined how we can use the isotopes and DNA captured in the wood. We examined techniques for isolating the original isotopes of strontium in the wood and for the extraction of the fragile DNA, to provide us with a completely new level of detail.
To examine past peoples’ exploitation of this resource we evaluated the quality of the timber that people used in the past. We can see that some regions suffered a shortage of timber for building, but this seems not to have automatically prompted import of timber from abroad. We quantified this phenomenon, to examine where and when usage of the local timber sources was preferred. We also examined regions that had surplus of timber during the study period. We see that timber imported to consumers in the Netherlands, Denmark, etc., come from different sources at different times. We also see that regions with surplus timber also imported timber.
With these details, we examined the patterns and the changes in the exploitation of the timber resource through the six centuries under study.
In terms of the timber origin, the tree-ring studies allowed us to identify where the historic timber originally grew. But because of gaps in this knowledge, we examined how we can use the isotopes and DNA captured in the wood. We examined techniques for isolating the original isotopes of strontium in the wood and for the extraction of the fragile DNA, to provide us with a completely new level of detail.
To examine past peoples’ exploitation of this resource we evaluated the quality of the timber that people used in the past. We can see that some regions suffered a shortage of timber for building, but this seems not to have automatically prompted import of timber from abroad. We quantified this phenomenon, to examine where and when usage of the local timber sources was preferred. We also examined regions that had surplus of timber during the study period. We see that timber imported to consumers in the Netherlands, Denmark, etc., come from different sources at different times. We also see that regions with surplus timber also imported timber.
With these details, we examined the patterns and the changes in the exploitation of the timber resource through the six centuries under study.