Periodic Reporting for period 1 - SPATHS (Spatial skills and mathematics, towards a causal understanding of mechanisms)
Periodo di rendicontazione: 2024-10-01 al 2026-09-30
Difficulties in learning maths usually begin at the start of education and are robust over time. The number of students not reaching basic levels of maths achievement remains a major societal challenge, at a time when societies are increasingly demanding maths skills due to scientific and industrial progress (e.g. growing reliance on AI, robotics, and data-driven decision-making).
SPATHS is a research project with the aim to understand the causal mechanisms via which spatial skills impact maths learning. Indeed, research examining the key cognitive foundations for successful maths learning has identified spatial skills as a promising potential contributor to maths development. Nevertheless, how and why SPatial skills contribute to mATHS learning remains elusive.
SPATHS will continue to unravel knowledge about the mechanism underlying the spatial-maths association. This is essential for future research into efficient interventions to improve maths and to make spatial training programs more effective.
We aim not only to demonstrate that spatial training can improve mathematics, but also to understand the mechanisms that make this possible (e.g. which types of spatial skills, which mathematical domains, and whether context or curriculum plays a role). Therefore, we break spatial skills and mathematical tasks down into different components. This allows us to test whether certain components are driving the effects and whether some mathematical tasks are specifically sensitive to the influence of spatial training. Furthermore, the project compares different conditions to examine whether the association between spatial skills and mathematics remains equally strong across contexts. To do this, we compare educational contexts in more than one country (Belgium and England), as school systems and instructional practices may influence how spatial activities are integrated into the classroom. Other variables we examine relate to demographics or environment, such as potential differences in how boys and girls use spatial skills in mathematics, or how socio-economic background may play a role. By combining all these variables, the SPATHS project aims to clarify how and why spatial skills can support mathematics development, and for whom
SPATHS is a research project with the aim to understand the causal mechanisms via which spatial skills impact maths learning. Indeed, research examining the key cognitive foundations for successful maths learning has identified spatial skills as a promising potential contributor to maths development. Nevertheless, how and why SPatial skills contribute to mATHS learning remains elusive.
SPATHS will continue to unravel knowledge about the mechanism underlying the spatial-maths association. This is essential for future research into efficient interventions to improve maths and to make spatial training programs more effective.
We aim not only to demonstrate that spatial training can improve mathematics, but also to understand the mechanisms that make this possible (e.g. which types of spatial skills, which mathematical domains, and whether context or curriculum plays a role). Therefore, we break spatial skills and mathematical tasks down into different components. This allows us to test whether certain components are driving the effects and whether some mathematical tasks are specifically sensitive to the influence of spatial training. Furthermore, the project compares different conditions to examine whether the association between spatial skills and mathematics remains equally strong across contexts. To do this, we compare educational contexts in more than one country (Belgium and England), as school systems and instructional practices may influence how spatial activities are integrated into the classroom. Other variables we examine relate to demographics or environment, such as potential differences in how boys and girls use spatial skills in mathematics, or how socio-economic background may play a role. By combining all these variables, the SPATHS project aims to clarify how and why spatial skills can support mathematics development, and for whom
The SPATHS project included two main studies. Study 1 is an observational study designed to test causal pathways between distinct components of spatial skills and distinct components of mathematical ability in young children aged 5 to 7 years. Data collection in Belgium has been completed resulting in a sample of 147 participants. Data collection in the United Kingdom has partially been completed during a secondment at the University of Oxford, with 57 children tested; the remainder will be collected by July 2026.
In the data collected so far, we tested whether specific spatial subskills (such as spatial attention, spatial memory, spatial visualisation, or mental rotation) have independent causal associations with different mathematical domains (such as arithmetic and proportional reasoning). This approach allowed us to move beyond simply asking whether spatial skills matter for maths, and begin to answer how and why they do.
The key findings from the Belgian dataset are twofold. First, the spatial-maths association is not driven by a single spatial subskill. Each component of spatial skills tested plays a unique role in mathematics development, rather than one skill dominating the others. Second, the association between spatial skills and mathematics appears stable across gender, age group (preschool vs. early primary school), country, and initial level of spatial performance. This suggests that the benefit of spatially-enriched mathematics education is likely to extend to a broad range of children.
Study 2 was designed as a spatial skills training experiment to test transfer effects and learning processes. While the study design was completed and ethical approval was obtained, data collection did not commence prior to the early termination of the fellowship on 1 March 2026, following the fellow's appointment to a permanent academic position.
In the data collected so far, we tested whether specific spatial subskills (such as spatial attention, spatial memory, spatial visualisation, or mental rotation) have independent causal associations with different mathematical domains (such as arithmetic and proportional reasoning). This approach allowed us to move beyond simply asking whether spatial skills matter for maths, and begin to answer how and why they do.
The key findings from the Belgian dataset are twofold. First, the spatial-maths association is not driven by a single spatial subskill. Each component of spatial skills tested plays a unique role in mathematics development, rather than one skill dominating the others. Second, the association between spatial skills and mathematics appears stable across gender, age group (preschool vs. early primary school), country, and initial level of spatial performance. This suggests that the benefit of spatially-enriched mathematics education is likely to extend to a broad range of children.
Study 2 was designed as a spatial skills training experiment to test transfer effects and learning processes. While the study design was completed and ethical approval was obtained, data collection did not commence prior to the early termination of the fellowship on 1 March 2026, following the fellow's appointment to a permanent academic position.
Prior to SPATHS, the association between spatial skills and mathematical ability was well-established at the level of correlation, and training studies had provided initial evidence of far transfer from spatial to mathematical skills. However, the field lacked a principled, theoretically-grounded account of the mechanisms through which spatial skills contribute to mathematics development. SPATHS addresses this gap directly.
The pre-registered protocol paper provides an overview of the potential mechanisms in a theoretic framework, how the SPATHS project aims to contribute to provide more understanding about the mechanisms but also how future research can and should progress to identify specific learning processes underlying the spatial-maths association.
Substantively, the finding that no single spatial subskill is the primary driver of the spatial-maths association challenges the hypothesis that spatial visualisation is uniquely important due to its role in mentally representing mathematical problems. Instead, results support a more distributed and flexible account: children draw on different spatial skills depending on the mathematical task at hand. This has implications for intervention design, suggesting that broad exposure to a variety of spatial strategies in mathematics education is preferable to targeting one specific spatial skill.
Beyond the initial aims, the project resulted in a theoretical position statement on the concept of "underlying mechanisms", published in the Journal of Numerical Cognition. Through the project, it became clear that a conceptual confusion existed in the literature: the term "underlying mechanism" was being used inconsistently and without a shared framework, making it difficult to design studies that could meaningfully test causal claims. Rather than proceeding without addressing this, a new theoretical framework was developed and published to clarify how mechanisms could be conceptualised and interpreted in cognitive psychology. This contribution encourages researchers to identify what level of mechanism they aim to study and reframes how research exploring underlying mechanisms should include insights from across all different levels.
A further result is the creation of the CHAOS network (Cognitive Heterogeneity Across Outcomes and Studies), which emerged organically from collaborations formed during the fellowship between the host institution at KU Leuven and the secondment at the University of Oxford. What began as an informal meet-up between two research groups has grown into an active international network with 20 members across 12 institutions, holding monthly meetings. This network creates the conditions for future collaborative research across institutions and countries.
For future uptake, the most pressing need is for the completion of the UK dataset and the publication of the full empirical results, including the cross-national comparison. Beyond this, Study 2, which could not be completed due to the early termination of the fellowship, represents a well-prepared next step. The study design and ethical approval are already in place, and conducting this study would allow the learning processes to be tested in an experimental way.
The pre-registered protocol paper provides an overview of the potential mechanisms in a theoretic framework, how the SPATHS project aims to contribute to provide more understanding about the mechanisms but also how future research can and should progress to identify specific learning processes underlying the spatial-maths association.
Substantively, the finding that no single spatial subskill is the primary driver of the spatial-maths association challenges the hypothesis that spatial visualisation is uniquely important due to its role in mentally representing mathematical problems. Instead, results support a more distributed and flexible account: children draw on different spatial skills depending on the mathematical task at hand. This has implications for intervention design, suggesting that broad exposure to a variety of spatial strategies in mathematics education is preferable to targeting one specific spatial skill.
Beyond the initial aims, the project resulted in a theoretical position statement on the concept of "underlying mechanisms", published in the Journal of Numerical Cognition. Through the project, it became clear that a conceptual confusion existed in the literature: the term "underlying mechanism" was being used inconsistently and without a shared framework, making it difficult to design studies that could meaningfully test causal claims. Rather than proceeding without addressing this, a new theoretical framework was developed and published to clarify how mechanisms could be conceptualised and interpreted in cognitive psychology. This contribution encourages researchers to identify what level of mechanism they aim to study and reframes how research exploring underlying mechanisms should include insights from across all different levels.
A further result is the creation of the CHAOS network (Cognitive Heterogeneity Across Outcomes and Studies), which emerged organically from collaborations formed during the fellowship between the host institution at KU Leuven and the secondment at the University of Oxford. What began as an informal meet-up between two research groups has grown into an active international network with 20 members across 12 institutions, holding monthly meetings. This network creates the conditions for future collaborative research across institutions and countries.
For future uptake, the most pressing need is for the completion of the UK dataset and the publication of the full empirical results, including the cross-national comparison. Beyond this, Study 2, which could not be completed due to the early termination of the fellowship, represents a well-prepared next step. The study design and ethical approval are already in place, and conducting this study would allow the learning processes to be tested in an experimental way.