Final Report Summary - RESPECT (Towards a topography of tolerance and equal respect. A comparative study of policies for the distribution of public spaces in culturally diverse societies)
Executive summary:
Tolerance has been increasingly invoked as the inspiring ideal of a number of social policies in European democracies. Appeals to tolerance have animated especially the political debates on those policies addressed to accommodate minorities requests. Amongst such requests those for the allocation of public spaces have recently acquired pride of place in the political agendas of many European and extra-European countries (e.g. the allocation of space for Roma sites; Muslims requests to build places of worship). Despite such a generalised political and societal relevance of the notion of tolerance, some problems may occur when policies inspired by it are implemented. In particular, the implementation of tolerance-inspired spatial policies may result in the marginalisation of differences and thus risk undermining social cohesion. What conception of tolerance may be invoked to limit such a risk?
To answer this question, the RESPECT research project studied the relations between tolerance and another cognate ideal, the ideal of respect for persons, in the belief that careful distinctions between the scope and reach of these ideals, and of their possible connections, are required to understand minorities requests for accommodation and the controversies surrounding such requests. Such an understanding is crucial to develop policies capable of responding to minorities requests appropriately and without undermining the pursuit of such other basic democratic values as equality and social cohesion. In particular, the research was geared to test the hypothesis that the demands of tolerance should be made compatible and complemented with those of equal respect for persons in order to make sense of the problems related to majority/minorities relations in the public space and to address them adequately.
Against this backdrop, the RESPECT research project carried out three main groups of case studies addressing important exemplary issues concerning majority / minorities relation in the public space:
1. the allocation of space to build places of worship, notably mosques (in Cyprus, Denmark, Germany, Israel, Italy, Slovenia);
2. the provision of sites for / marginalisation of Roma (in the Czech Republic, France, Hungary, Italy, Lithuania, United Kingdom);
3. the policies of urban regeneration in areas inhabited by migrants (in the Czech Republic, Germany, Israel, Italy, Lithuania, Russia).
Despite the differences across the three groups of cases, all showed that the situations of deprivation and marginalisation suffered by the relevant minorities were largely dependent on their lack of political and social participation on an equal footing with the majority. This goes beyond mere issues of tolerance (what the minorities are allowed or not allowed to do vis-à-vis a specific controversial issues).The failure of local and national administrations to make the minorities voices heard affected the minorities capacity to have an impact on the political agenda and stake their claims for access to public space effectively. The comparative studies showed that this lack of participation is not only a factual problem concerning the minorities disempowerment, but it also raises normative issues, because in the absence of egalitarian channels of political and social participation minorities are treated as society members of a lesser value, as second class individuals. This raises serious issues of justice as minorities are not treated with equal respect, thus undermining the very foundation of their life in a democracy.
The most important policy implication of our research is therefore that equal respect for persons requires an enhancement of the terms of participation of minorities to the political and social life of their society, with a view to redressing the structural inequalities characterising majority / minorities relations. Our findings are of interests to national Civil society organisation (CSO)s, European, national, regional and municipal authorities, as well as to the international academic community engaged in the study of urban integration in different social, religious, cultural, and political contexts.
Project context and objectives:
Concept and objectives
Tolerance has been increasingly invoked as the inspiring ideal of a number of social policies in European democracies. The concession of linguistic rights to minorities, the promotion of policies of affirmative action, and the distribution of public funds and spaces for building places for worship are just some examples of the many ways in which tolerance may be seen to inspire the political agenda of diverse European countries. But what does the ideal of tolerance mean and require of societies committed to it? In what ways can social policies be seen to embody the ideal of tolerance? And, on a more theoretical note, on what grounds may tolerance-inspired policies be justified so as to be acceptable to a culturally diverse citizenry?
Besides such conceptual issues, related to the formulation and justification of tolerance-inspired policies, problems may also concern their implementation. Social policies inspired by the ideal of tolerance are often devised to secure such fundamental values as the equality of treatment of all citizens and the promotion of social cohesion. However, the implementation of such policies may arguably risk undermining the bases for the pursuit of those values. Thus they may represent a threat to the equality of treatment of all citizens as they risk creating different categories of citizenship with which diverse rights and obligations are associated, and, in so doing, they may end up undermining the bases of social cohesion (causing resentments, and ultimately intolerance). Hence the question: 'Does the implementation of tolerance-inspired policies actually risk undermining the pursuit of such basic democratic commitments as those to equality and social cohesion'? If so, what conception of tolerance, grounded on what bases, may be invoked to limit such a risk?
To answer these questions, we decided to focus on a specific set of cases related to spatial policies. Cases belonging to this family include policies for the distribution of spaces to build places of worship and faith schools, to provide sites for Roma and other travelling populations, as well as housing policies for migrants. The study of such policies allowed us to concentrate on potential cases of marginalisation and stigmatisation of differences, out of which issues of equal respect for persons arise.
On this basis, we aimed to establish:
1. Whether and to what extent spatial policies do (and should) embody the ideal of tolerance, as well as what exactly this ideal would require of them;
2. What impact tolerance-inspired policies of such kinds have on social cohesion.
In doing so, we tested the tenability of the hypothesis that the demands of tolerance should be made compatible and complemented with those of equal respect for persons in order to make sense of the problems related to majority / minorities relations in the public space and to address them adequately.
The goal of the project
To address the issues above, the project set itself a twofold goal:
1. To clarify and distinguish the various notions of tolerance and their possible grounds of justification to capture the attitude with which spatial policies might be devised in culturally diverse polities.
2. To study how tolerance-inspired policies may be devised to combine the basic democratic commitment to equality with the aspiration to accommodate cultural diversity without undermining social cohesion. To this aim, we tested the tenability of the hypothesis that the demands of tolerance should be made compatible and complemented with those of equal respect for persons in order to contribute to develop, justify and implement spatial policies meeting the desiderata above.
In order to achieve the Goal, the project aimed to realise the following objectives:
Objective 1: to advance the state of the art in the field of cultural and religious interactions by developing a multidisciplinary conceptual taxonomy aimed to clarify and distinguish (a) the concepts of tolerance and equal respect and (b) the grounds of justification of tolerance-inspired policies. On (a), we identified the possible declinations in which one might conceive of the concepts of tolerance (from modus vivendi to recognition) and equal respect (distinguishing respect from such concepts as esteem and honour). To pursue (b), we explored different grounds on which tolerance-inspired policies may be justified, distinguishing between equal respect, non-discrimination, equality of treatment, neutrality, impartiality, non-interference and indifference. The taxonomy thus constructed including glossaries, conceptual maps and original working papers was multidisciplinary in kind, so as to ensure a nuanced outlook on the matter.
Objective 2: to increase in-depth knowledge of the way in which (some formulation of) the ideal of tolerance has informed the development of spatial policies in culturally diverse polities. To this aim, we focused on a set of case studies capable of (i) offering some ground to study how tolerance-inspired policies have been formulated, justified and implemented across and outside Europe, on a matter (ii) whose analysis may reveal conflicts between tolerance, equality and social cohesion and solidarity. To pursue this objective, and to increase the societal relevance of our research at this stage, we invited the contribution of a number of locally active CSOs, expert in dealing with questions of social exclusion, urban integration, migration and national minorities.
Objective 3: to increase knowledge of the influence played by local cultural diversities on the way in which the ideal of tolerance has been declined in national contexts. To pursue this objective, we carried out a comparison, aiming at characterising the differences and similarities between the considered countries on the treatment of the cases studied under objective 2. In particular, the analysis was conducted comparing spatial policies across a large and encompassing sample of European Union (EU) Member States (Italy, Germany, United Kingdom, Czech Republic, Slovenia, Denmark, Lithuania, France, Hungary and Cyprus) and between these and an associated state (Israel) and an International cooperation partner country (ICPC) (Russia). This enabled both commonalities and differences to emerge out of a broad sample of ways in which a society may be organised and tolerance-related issues addressed. What is more, the comparative consideration of Israel and Russia helped us to adopt an extra-European outlook, so as to consider policies of integration across Europe from the point of view of different traditions and value systems.
Objective 4: to extrapolate from the studies above the possible connections between tolerance and equal respect for persons. The cases studied under objective 2 and their comparative analysis (under objective 3) allowed us to concentrate on potential issues of marginalisation and stigmatisation of differences, out of which issues of equal respect arise. Accordingly, we aimed to test the tenability of the hypothesis that the demands of tolerance should be made compatible and complemented with those of equal respect for persons in order to make sense of the problems related to majority / minorities relations in the public space and to address them adequately. Besides their theoretical interest, our results were used to inform European and national policy makers and to develop possible recommendations to devise policies capable of addressing the possible tensions between tolerance and social cohesion in culturally diverse polities.
Although mutually distinct, work on the four objectives of the project were fruitfully interdependent. Thus, for example, while the conceptual taxonomy developed under objective 1 provided a framework for addressing the case studies on spatial policies under objective 2, it was open to revision in the light of the results of policy-based studies. Similarly, the formulation of our research hypothesis provided guidance in the conduction of empirical research, but was open also to reformulation in the light of the findings of our case studies (Objective 2) and their comparative analysis (objective 3), as well as to the indications received from CSOs (objective 2) so as to make sure it reflects and engages with the perspectives of those actually involved in, and concerned by, our considered cases.
The project was developed in response to the topic 3.3.1 ('Tolerance and cultural diversity'), within Area 8.3.3. ('Cultural interactions in an international perspective') of Activity 8.3 ('Major trends in society and their implications'). The area's main objective reads as follows: to study European societies in a context of increasingly diverse cultural backgrounds. In particular, an assessment of multiculturalism, cultural interactions and their relationship to integration, social cohesion in urban spaces, tolerance, as well as intolerance, racism and xenophobia should be addressed in order to provide recommendations for future EU policies. The involvement and contributions of relevant non-European teams should be assured.
In particular the project addressed the following issues in the area:
1. to study culturally diverse societies with special attention to multiculturalism, cultural interactions and their relationship to integration, and social cohesion in urban spaces;
2. more specifically, and in line with what explicitly stated in topic 3.3.1 to address and clarify the notion of tolerance and the (other) concepts involved and determine those factors which have contributed, or can contribute to, the construction and the maintenance of tolerant, culturally diverse societies with a view to better formulation of policies at a national, regional and EU level.
1. How did this project study culturally diverse societies with special attention to multiculturalism, cultural interactions and their relationship to integration, and social cohesion in urban spaces?
Objectives 2 and 3 of the RESPECT project were devoted to the thorough empirically-grounded study of culturally diverse societies, with the specific aim to increase knowledge of the way in which (some formulation of) the ideal of tolerance has informed the development of spatial policies, and of the influence played by local cultural diversities on the way in which the ideal of tolerance has been declined in national contexts.
More precisely, as explained above, the case studies and their comparative analysis were conducted with a twofold aim, namely to establish whether and to what extent spatial policies do (and should) embody the ideal of tolerance, as well as what exactly this ideal would require of them, as well as what impact tolerance-inspired policies of such kind have on social cohesion. This allowed us to address directly the issues of multiculturalism, cultural interactions and integration, as well as social cohesion with a special attention to urban spaces to which the considered policies apply. Moreover, our empirical studies were identified in details and conducted following the contribution of local CSOs. This ensured that our approach targets problem of actual relevance for the citizens directly involved in the issues under study.
The case studies were carried out across a broad sample of European countries, representative of different regional areas: northern Europe (Denmark), western Europe (France, Germany and the United Kingdom), central-eastern Europe (Czech Republic, Lithuania, Slovenia and Hungary), Southern Europe (Italy) and South-Eastern Europe (Cyprus). Moreover, in line with the work programme's request, the involvement and contribution of relevant non-European teams was ensured thanks to the presence of Israel and Russia. The relevance of these countries for the themes studied by the RESPECT project is obvious if one considers their traditional and extensive experience of dealing with large minorities in connection with, more or less conflict-laden, spatial issues.
2. How did this project address and clarify the notion of tolerance and the other concepts involved and determine those factors which have contributed, or can contribute to, the construction and the maintenance of tolerant, culturally diverse societies with a view to better formulation of policies at a national, regional and EU level?
The clarification of the notion of tolerance with a view to the formulation of better policies was the main concern of, respectively, objectives 1 and 4 (this latter drawing on material from objectives 2 and 3).
The multidisciplinary review of the literature and conceptual taxonomy developed under objective 1 aimed precisely to disentangle, from different disciplinary angles, the various meanings possibly associated with the ideal of tolerance, and grounds offered for its justification, from within diverse cultural perspectives. This was done with the instruments of conceptual analysis and historical reconstruction. More precisely, as stated above, we (a) identified the senses in which one might conceive of the concepts of tolerance and equal respect and (b) explored different grounds on which tolerance-inspired policies may be justified.
The research activities aimed to (a) provided the basis for the case studies and comparative analysis under objectives 2 and 3 so as to bring out the embodiment of the notion of tolerance in different historical, social, religious, cultural, linguistic and political contexts as requested by topic 3.3.1. The studies carried out to pursue (b) prepared the ground for testing our main research hypothesis (on the fruitfulness of complementing references to tolerance with those to equal respect for persons) and, in light of our findings, to prepare recommendations for the formulation of policies capable of addressing the possible tensions between tolerance and social cohesion in culturally diverse polities at a national, regional and EU level.
Project results:
Objective 1
One of the main contributions of the RESPECT Project consists in the development of a conceptual taxonomy to clarify the concepts of tolerance, respect and space both taken individually and in their mutual connections. Appeals to tolerance and respect are very much vivid in all political and academic debates revolving around policies for the accommodation of minority claims, including policies for the distribution of urban space. However, it is far from clear and uncontroversial what they mean and require of societies committed to them. This lack of agreement at a conceptual level translates into political, social and institutional problems once such policies are implemented both in terms of the interpretation of minority claims and of the development of policies capable of responding to them appropriately. Therefore the conceptual groundwork carried out in the first six months of the RESPECT project is crucial to enhance the understanding of minorities calls for tolerance and respect in urban areas.
Such a conceptual clarification was carried out through a thorough review of existing studies on themes of toleration and respect in the urban space within the fields of social, political, moral and legal philosophy, sociology, social anthropology, applied ethics, social geography, legal and urban studies. This work led to the completion of a multidisciplinary thematic bibliography and a collection of investigative works in several European and extra-European languages (English, French, German, Italian, Greek, Danish, Russian, Lithuanian, Slovenian, Polish, Chinese, Czech, Hebrew, Hungarian, Slovak). This review of the literature served as a basis on which the analysis of the concepts of tolerance, respect and space was carried out. The results of this groundwork were presented in a conceptual map including working definitions of the key terms of our research. Besides representing a contribution to the existing studies on tolerance, respect and space in its own right, the conceptual map is meant to provide common ground for the next, applied phases of the project.
Moreover, the research carried out to complete the conceptual map informed the writing of papers for the dissemination of the project's first results to the international academic community. The papers, discussed during a workshop held at the University of Copenhagen in June 2010 (deliverable 4.1) have been initially published in an electronic version in the RESPECT project working paper series (ISSN No: 2097-5816). They were then revised and divided into two sets of thematically integrated articles submitted for publication in two prestigious journal's special issues. Articles addressing the problem of the accommodation of minorities claims were submitted to the European Journal of Philosophy for a special issue on 'Toleration, respect and the accommodation of minority claims'; articles engaging with the limits of toleration and the problem of groups tolerance were submitted to the European Journal of Political Theory for a special issue on 'Frontiers of toleration and respect: non-moral approaches and groups relations'.
The academic bibliography (deliverable 1) can be found here: http://respect.iusspavia.it/?bibliography .
The conceptual map (deliverable 3) can be found here: http://respect.iusspavia.it/?conceptual_map .
Special issue of the European Journal of Philosophy (deliverable 4.2): 'Toleration, respect and the accommodation of minority claims'. The articles in the issue built on the analysis of the concepts of toleration and respect as political normative ideals to study how the appeal to these values may justify different strategies for the accommodation of religious, cultural and ethical minorities (with a special emphasis on the concession of rights to legal exemptions), and to conclude with a specific focus on the requirements that the principle of respect poses on the toleration and freedom of association of illiberal groups. They thus aim to make a qualified contribution to the many current philosophical debates on toleration and respect by clarifying their conceptual and normative relations qua basic principles informing liberal institutions.
The articles of the special issue seek to advance the discussion on the relation between toleration and respect in two blind spots of both multicultural and liberal approaches: the scope for non-moral or prudential accounts of toleration, and the status of social groups as possible subjects / agents involved in relations of toleration and respect. On the one hand, the moralising tendency of recent political philosophy, which requires unconditional equal treatment out of principle, tends to mistrust instrumental accounts of toleration and respect; on the other hand, the frequent mention of the role of groups is not matched by much attention to their normative status and to the difference they can make to the theory and practice of toleration.
Objective 2
The conceptual clarification thus achieved provided the framework within which three different sets of case studies were carried out in the second phase of the project. The case studies represent a crucial step in the research geared as they were to unveil the tensions between democraciesaspirational commitments to respect and tolerance and the factual marginalisation of minorities in the urban space. Selected case studies included:
1. issues of allocation of public space for building places of worship, notably mosques (studied countries: Italy, Denmark, Germany, Slovenia, Israel, Cyprus);
2. problems connected to the urban marginalisation and segregation of Roma and other travelling populations (studied countries: France, United Kingdom, Lithuania, Italy, Czech Republic, Hungary);
3. housing policies in multiethnic cities and the policies for urban regeneration in areas inhabited by minorities (studied countries: Lithuania, Italy, Germany, Israel, Russia, Czech Republic).
The case studies were carried out in close cooperation with CSOs active nationally and locally on relevant issues (see Deliverable 5). The results of this phase were discussed at a working seminar held in Vilnius in January 2011 and have been disseminated widely through the press both locally and nationally (see deliverable 7.2). Moreover, two journal's special issues were planned to make sure the outputs of this phase reach also a specialised, beside a general, audience. Works from within the field of political philosophy were included in a special issue of the journal 'Notizie di Politeia. Rivista di etica e scelte pubbliche', on equal respect and the distribution of public spaces, contributions to political and social studies were included in a special issue of the journal 'Politics in Central Europe' on 'Dealing with minorities: Integration, tolerance and the risks of segregation'.
Special issue of the journal 'Politics in Central Europe' (deliverable 7.1): 'Dealing with minorities: integration, tolerance and the risks of segregation'.
The papers covered the following issues:
1. policies of toleration of particular states from a case study or comparative perspective;
2. examples of good or bad practices of the policies of (spatial) integration of minorities; 3. the central European approaches to minority integration within a more general European or theoretical framework;
4. (spatial) marginalisation and segregation of the Roma, travellers, and other groups of ethnic, cultural, or religious character;
5. distribution of public space;
6. approaches to group identity and its construction.
All papers in the issue concentrated on the studying the tenability and the implications of the idea that toleration, based on respect, and implying the instrumental recognition of previously excluded identity, becomes part of the general scheme for fulfilling the promises of democratic citizenship where all people are considered and treated with equal respect. Such a general issues was investigated through a set of case studies concerning issues of distribution of public space.
The case studies (deliverable 6) were divided into three thematic sets as follows:
1. Distribution of spaces to build places of worship (notably mosques), involving the following countries: Denmark, Cyprus, Germany, Israel, Italy, Slovenia.
Case studies in this set aimed to analyse and discuss the problems encountered by minorities requesting public space to build places of worship and the types of responses given by public institutions (mainly at a municipal level). In particular, research concentrated on the analysis of policies for the distribution of public spaces to Muslim minorities for the building of mosques in the urban areas of different European and extra-European countries: Denmark, Germany, Italy, Slovenia, Israel and Cyprus.
Our analysis led to the following important result. If we frame the issue of the accommodation of Muslim minorities in urban areas in terms of respect rather than tolerance, a new whole set of issues emerges. And this has important policy implications. The response to Muslim requests could not be merely based on non-interference or symbolic recognition (as tolerance demands), but would require a serious reflection on the terms and conditions of the political participation of minorities (whether they are composed by citizens or residents) in (at least) local decision-making processes and on the quality of the reasons offered to justify political decisions to them.
2. Provision of sites for marginalisation of Roma and other travelling populations, involving the following countries: Czech Republic, France, Hungary, Italy, Lithuania, The United Kingdom (Wales).
The aim of this case-family was to study the problem of the concession of public spaces for the settlement of Roma and other travelling populations. The case studies employed a common analytical framework and research methodology: each case study focused both on the institutional policies and regulations on the concession of spaces for Roma settlements and on the public debates arising in local communities. Studied countries include: France, Italy, Hungary, Lithuania and the United Kingdom.
On the basis of our research, we came to the conclusion that policies, either at local, national and European level should be much more nuanced than it has so far been the case so as to reflect the multifaceted situation of Roma and their heterogeneous needs and composition. They should also take into due consideration the tendency of many Roma to housing stability so as to provide suitable spatial solutions that do not force them to nomadism and to live, at any rate, in precarious and unsafe conditions.
3. Housing policies and ghettoization of minorities in urban areas, involving the following countries: Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Israel, Italy, Russia.
This case-family aimed to collect a representative set of examples of housing policies having an impact on the living conditions of minorities in urban areas. In particular, the case studies focused on the risk of ghettoisation of minorities (migrants in particular) and on the (possible) solutions devised by local authorities. Studied countries include: Germany, Italy, Israel, Russian Federation, Lithuania and the Czech Republic.
What such cases suggest is that whatever approach to policy is adopted, whether top-down or horizontal, for its success it is crucial that the perspectives of marginalised individuals be enclosed as much as possible so that policies are not simply imposed on them but are devised with them. In other words, any policy against the ghettoisation of minorities requires an active political participation on the part of the relevant minorities and must be arrived at through an open, inclusive, public dialogue. This method seems to stand the best chances to make sure that minorities (in general, and migrant in particular) are not simply tolerated, but respected: treated as equals.
Objective 3
The activities carried out in the second phase of the research, objectives 3 and 4, were mainly concerned with the comparisons between the case studies (objective 3) and the extrapolation from the previous studies of the connections between the ideals of tolerance and equal respect for persons (objective 4).
In particular, under objective 3, multiple pairings between diverse countries were decided in order to draft comparative papers and overviews on the three sets of case studies written in objective 2 (distribution of spaces to build places of worship, marginalisation of Roma in the public space, housing policies and ghettoization of minorities in urban areas). The countries to compare were chosen on the basis of the criteria of either similarity or diversity of the countries, so as to dig out either connections or differences between the studied countries. Such a comparative work allowed the project's participants to understand the general tendencies on the current European situations concerning tolerance, respect, minorities and the distribution of public space. The results of this phase were presented at the workshop 'Respect and tolerance in Europe: a comparative perspective', held at the University of Nicosia on 1-2 July 2011 (deliverable 10). The comparative work contributed to the drafting of three comparative overviews on the three families of case studies, whose main role was that of providing scientific evidence for the policy briefs.
Despite the differences across the three groups of cases, all showed that the situations of deprivation and marginalisation suffered by the relevant minorities were largely dependent on their lack of political and social participation on an equal footing with the majority. This goes beyond mere issues of tolerance (what the minorities are allowed or not allowed to do vis-à-vis a specific controversial issues).The failure of local and national administrations to make the minorities voices heard affected the minoritiescapacity to have an impact on the political agenda and stake their claims for access to public space effectively. The comparative studies showed that this lack of participation is not only a factual problem concerning the minorities disempowerment, but it also raises normative issues, because in the absence of egalitarian channels of political and social participation minorities are treated as society members of a lesser value, as second class individuals. This raises serious issues of justice as minorities are not treated with equal respect, thus undermining the very foundation of their life in a democracy.
Objective 4
In objective 4, the activities of the consortium aimed at the production of outcomes in two areas: scientific results on the relation between tolerance and respect in the distribution of public space, and the dissemination to the policy makers of the main results of the project. To purse the first task, papers were drafted to be included in special issues discussing the interconnections between toleration and respect (Journal of Applied Philosophy, The Journal of Sociology and Social Anthropology) and articles discussing more specific issues related to different uses of the public space (Journal of Urban Affairs). Moreover, book proposals (for Routledge and Central European University Press) were prepared and successfully submitted to the publishers. The final contributions included in the journalsvspecial issues and in the books were discussed in the project's final conference, held in Pavia, on 3-5 November 2011 (deliverable 13).
Special issue of the Journal of Applied Philosophy (deliverable 12.1): 'Toleration and respect'.
The articles in this issue concern the meaning and the place of the notion of respect relative to the ideals of toleration and equal freedom in democratic societies. Specific questions that will be addressed include: Who deserves respect? In what form? Are respect and recognition interpretations of toleration, or do they represent different, and sometimes conflicting notions? What beliefs, attitudes, and conduct does respect involve? What are the spaces of civic cohabitation where respect amongst people finds expression? What are the limits of the notion of respect?
Special issue of the Russian Journal of Sociology and Social Anthropology (deliverable 12.2): 'Toleration and respect'.
The issue is devoted to the problem of connection between the concepts of toleration and respect. The problem of underpinning toleration in contemporary society is analysed. The issue starts with classical understanding of toleration as a moral ideal (Peter Nicholson) and the Darwall's distinction of recognition respect and appraisal respect. Then, the main paradigms of the interrelations between these concepts are analysed and some important contemporary non-trivial cases (such as the case of conscientious objection) are discussed. The issue for the first time provides the Russian reader with a comprehensive picture of contemporary debates in multiculturalism, toleration and respect.
Special issue of the Journal of Urban Affairs on space and pluralism (deliverable 12.3).
The originality of this special issue lies in its attempt to combine the methodologies of two different disciplines, political theory and urban studies, to clarify the sense in which life in the urban space poses specific issues of tolerance.
Edited collection of essays submitted to the Routledge studies in social and political thought, Routledge (deliverable 14.1).
The book 'How groups matter. Challenges of toleration in pluralistic societies' is interdisciplinary, in a way that opens up a wide potential audience: the editors and authors proceeded from a dialogue between political philosophers, social scientists and jurists, thereby facing multiple methods and offering solutions not only to conceptual, but also to practical and legal issues. The original contribution of the book to the academic debate of multiple disciplines is the attempt to provide a full analysis of the importance of social groups both from a normative and methodological point of view. The thesis of the book is that there cannot be an adequate treatment of groups without a correct understanding of their nature.
Edited collection of essays submitted to the central European university press (deliverable 14.2).
The book Space and Pluralism is based on the original idea of bringing together theoretical and empirical work on cultural pluralism, space, respect and tolerance under conditions of diversity, and with special, though not exclusive, regard to cities. Besides the wide multidisciplinary approach, including urban studies, social geography, political theory, sociology and political philosophy, the book's main originality lies in the connection of space and pluralism, two notions of the utmost importance for diverse disciplines that have so far been kept separate.
Finally, other individual papers were submitted and published in international and national peer-reviewed journals.
Besides the scientific presentations of the results just outlined, the RESPECT project's findings were also meant for the dissemination among policy makers and the general public. To this end, our results constituted also the basis for the preparation of three policy briefs on the following themes:
1. European policy brief on the discrimination of Roma in the public space (deliverable 11.1)
The Roma situation is a unique example of a generally discriminated minority that challenges some of the EU's fundamental values. By contrast, solving the Roma question at the European level could reinforce the political unity of the EU.
2. European policy brief on the debates about the construction of mosques in Europe (deliverable 11.2)
Countries of EU have all recognised the right to freedom of religion in their constitutions, following the declaration of the United Nations and the European charters on human rights. But despite such constitutional and conventional protections, the construction of mosques has faced massive opposition throughout Europe. This resistance to the construction of mosques challenges the EU's fundamental values and put into jeopardy the integration of Muslim migrants. Against this problematic backdrop, the following question is in need of a response: are European societies meeting their commitment to freedom of religion? Is the resistance to the construction of mosques to be solved by an appeal to the idea of tolerance?
3. European policy brief on the policies of urban regeneration in the areas inhabited by minorities (deliverable 11.3)
The city might be considered the ideal context in which people having different values and interests could peacefully interact, while treating each other as equals. But, actually, it is often the case that minorities are marginalised and that differences are likely to create conflicts and acts of intolerance. Despite such a condition may seem to reproduce a general trend in European cities, conflicts are not our fate, and there are successful examples of peaceful cohabitation. The reflection on the principles informing the good practices can provide useful insights on policies that are both respectful of minorities and conducive to social cohesion.
The large and varied results of the RESPECT project thus offer an important contribution to the realisation of a complex and comprehensive work seeking to respond to the need - widely recognised at a European level - to protect cultural diversities, and avoid their discrimination, stigmatisation and marginalisation, within socially cohesive urban spaces.
Potential impact:
The potential impact of the RESPECT project concerns four areas and may be summarised as follows. The project aims to:
1. advance the state of the art in the field of toleration, respect and the treatment of minorities in the urban space among European societies and between them and the rest of the world;
2. Enhance interdisciplinary cooperation in the researched areas between researchers in Europe and in other relevant geographic regions;
3. devise strategies to involve relevant communities, stakeholders, practitioners in the making and/or diffusion of research;
4. improve the formulation, development and implementation of policies;
5. disseminate the results of the research not only to the academic audience, but also to the general public at a local, national and international level.
Specifically:
1. Advance the state of the art in the field of toleration, respect and the treatment of minorities in the urban space among European societies and between them and the rest of the world
The contribution of the RESPECT project to and its impact on the state of the art in the relevant disciplines may be measured by the scientific publications throughout the whole project. The Consortium devised a multilevel and multidisciplinary strategy to target diverse scientific communities and fields (political theory, political philosophy, political science, sociology, legal theory, human geography). The first tool for scientific dissemination was the RESPECT project working paper series (ISSN No: 2037-5816), freely accessible upon registration on the project's website. Several special issues of peer-reviewed journals in diverse disciplines were prepared. These include: Politics in Central Europe, Notizie di Politeia, European Journal of Political Theory, European Journal of Philosophy, Journal of Applied Philosophy, Journal of Sociology and Social Anthropology, Journal of Urban Affairs. Moreover, the proposals for two edited collection of essays with contributions from the project were submitted to renowned international publishers: 'How groups matter. Challenges of toleration in pluralistic societies' (Routledge), and 'Space and pluralism' (central European university press). Finally, many individual members of the project published several articles in national journals in local languages so as to differentiate the outcomes and maximise the breadth of the audience. For a complete list of publications see the previous section.
A common thread cutting across all the publications was the attempt to connect empirical and normative issues in a way that is both sensitive to specific contexts, but still informed by general normative considerations of justice. The high quality of the international journals and publishers will guarantee a robust and wide impact in the fields concerned.
2. Enhance interdisciplinary cooperation in the researched areas between researchers in Europe and in other relevant geographic regions
The goal of promoting an interdisciplinary cooperation with the international partners of the project was achieved through the organisation of three project's workshops and one final conference:
- Workshop on 'Toleration, respect and space: concepts, conceptions and applications' 21-23 June 2010, Centre for the Study of Equality and Multiculturalism, University of Copenhagen.
- RESPECT project's working seminar, 19 July 2001, Amberton Hotel, Vilnius (Lithuania).
- Workshop 'Respect and tolerance in Europe: a comparative perspective' - 1-2 July 2001 University of Nicosia, Nicosia, Cyprus.
- Debating toleration: attitudes, practices and institutions, 3-5 November 2011, Faculty of Political Science, University of Pavia (Italy).
The discussions in each meeting were characterised by a fruitful exchange of ideas. The project's participants contributed with their diverse disciplinary competences to lively debates. The workshops gave the opportunity to the project partners to make contacts with international experts (academics and practitioners), that were invited to present original contributions or discuss the project papers. The success of these meetings is proved by the willingness and intention of the participants to continue the cooperation in future research projects.
3. Devise strategies to involve relevant communities, stakeholders, practitioners in the making and / or diffusion of research
All teams were committed to the involvement of CSOs and practitioners in the fields of minority rights, allocation of public space, and religious freedom. Such a task was pursued not only with a view to making contacts with CSOs and stakeholders, but also with a view to conducting a research as much as possible connected to the real needs of the parties involved. In order to ensure an empirically appropriate completion of the case studies on spatial policies, each team surveyed possible CSOs to make contact with in order to receive first hand data on the local case studies. After a preliminary contact with the identified CSOs, they were involved in the process of drafting the case studies in diverse roles: they provided access to data bases, first hand data, or informal materials to the consortium teams. Moreover, some members of the CSOs were invited by local teams to participate as discussants in local seminars devoted to the case studies.
The choice of the CSOs was done on the basis of the following criteria: the CSO should be specialised on the issues at stake, locally grounded, and willing to collaborate. The selected CSOs and other agencies with which the RESPECT teams made contacts ranged from charitable organisations, religious associations, CSOs campaigning for the safeguard of minority rights, networks of associations for the inclusion of migrants, associations devoted to the improvements of the conditions of Roma, public and private research centres, specialised public agencies on immigration.
The cooperation with the contacted CSOs proved necessary and fruitful to strengthen the empirical accuracy of the case studies. In particular, the diverse inputs received from the CSOs enriched the information on the spatial dimension of the case studies. But contacts with CSOs were made also in order to include other subjects coming from the civil society in the set of targeted audiences. Indeed, each team made contacts with relevant CSOs not only with a view to receiving materials to draft the case studies and an informed feedback on them, but also with a view to contacting the CSOs in the final phase of the project (objective 4) as addressees of policy recommendations.
4. Improve the formulation, development and implementation of policies
To meet such a goal, and following the indications of the Project Officer, three European policy briefs were drafted in the three areas of case studies:
i. the debate about the construction of mosques in European towns (deliverable 12.2);
ii. the discrimination of Roma in the public space (deliverable 12.1);
iii. the policies of urban regeneration in areas inhabited by minorities (deliverable 12.3).
Regarding the debate on the construction of mosques in Europe the findings of the project have shown that what is lacking in all circumstances is for Muslims to have an equal opportunity to participate in the decision making processes of the communities where they live. Building on this, administrators should encourage all the actors involved in the process to meet, to hear the arguments of the others and to negotiate together.
Muslims of recent immigration often lack the status of citizens. That is frequently the cause of their lack of political representation. There is hence a need to re-discuss the laws on voting rights at local elections to meet the need of representation of non-EU migrants and foster their political participation. This is particularly urgent, for Muslims frequently lack a proper structure to serve as a unique interlocutor with the state and administrators. Moreover, the legal frameworks that apply to the recognition of a religious group are often built after the Christian churches model. There is hence a need to rethink the criteria for the recognition of religious groups or for electing interlocutors of public officials in accordance with the non-unitary profile of Muslim populations.
Participation should help reaching a decision, hopefully shared by the parties, with a view to fostering respectful relations between the parties involved. To achieve such a goal institutions should ensure that in the decision procedures regarding the construction of mosques, whether at a national or local level, Muslim minorities be actually treated as equal members and that all the parties involved have an equal chance to have a say.
On the issue of discrimination of Roma in the public space the project's intended impact concerns the following policy recommendations.
As many countries have adopted specific transposition measures of the European law with regard to the right of free movement and residence of migrants, EU should ensure that the rule of law is applied equally with respect to persons coming from all EU Member States, old and new, and restrict the way in which each country can interpret the law on freedom of movement.
In accordance with the claims of the Frame-Statute of the Romani nation, EU should recognise for all European members, regardless of their supposed ethnic or cultural identity, and without requiring them to prove any such identity, specific rights entailed by the right to mobility, including the right to the acknowledgement of mobile accommodation as a domicile, the right to park on private areas, and the right to fit-for-purpose schooling. In other words, the findings of the project show that current national and EU legislation implicitly discriminates against nomadic peoples.
To overcome such problems, it should become possible to acquire European citizenship independently of national citizenship in any Member State. The Roma minority is a European minority because its members prefigure a European citizenship with a transnational character, i.e. whose associated system of rights does not depend upon national borders. Members of Roma minorities should be granted, like any other legal foreigner, the right to vote in (at least) local elections on the basis of their residency and in European elections on the basis of their transnational European citizenship. The Roma would become a test case of the EU's validity as a unified political entity.
Concerning the issue of the policies of urban regeneration in the areas inhabited by minorities the project impact may be summarised as follows. On the basis of our findings and the good practices analysed in the case studies, institutions that aim at reducing urban marginalisation due to relational inequalities should:
- Support a genuinely multicultural educational system (i.e. one that goes beyond the celebration of superficial differences) that can help future citizens to acknowledge one another as equals, independent of their values and interests. Policy makers should follow the good practices, such as that of the Flying Carpet (Turin), for it was a project involving both children of primary schools and their parents. Migrants were publicly treated as equals not because of or despite their differences, but by respecting their differences.
- Make available public spaces that can support marginalised individuals and groups' inclusion in the public sphere with a view to securing one of the most basic conditions for developing a public claim: the chance to literally meet other people with whom it is possible to share some interests and values. Relevant examples of these principles include the intercultural gardens (Germany) and mixed parks (Tel-Aviv).
- Incentivise the presence and activity of migrants and minorities within the civil society, so that their impact on the political sphere does not strictly and necessarily depend on their political rights. Besides the recognition of political rights, the case of cultural associations is particularly relevant for enhancing respect between majority and minorities. On the one hand, as the case of S. Salvario (Turin) showed, if migrants have the opportunity to show and explain their cultures and values, it is more likely that majority acknowledge them as worthy to be pursued. On the other hand, by ensuring visibility to these values, migrants and minorities could try to either modify or be included in the social standards that are embedded in the dominant culture and deeply disadvantage them.
To support the inclusion of migrants and minorities within the civil society, local institutions should:
- incentivise the presence of migrants within existent associations through, for instance, a system of fiscal deductions for those associations that include migrants as members;
- support migrants' associations by:
i. providing them a regime of rent control for the location of the associations;
ii. simplifying the requirements that they have to fulfil in order to be publicly financed; or
iii. granting public funding to sustain specific associations (system of quotas).
So, the overall expected impact of the RESPECT project concerns the link between participation and social cohesion. One of the project main contributions is the demonstration that the appeal to the idea of toleration is not enough to guarantee an egalitarian treatment of the minorities in urban areas. Minorities risk being merely 'tolerated' and not fully recognised as equal partners in the public arena. To pursue such an aim the project claims that the idea of equal respect for persons is better equipped to ground the full inclusion and participation of minorities in contemporary European democracies. The RESPECT project showed that there cannot be a real social cohesion without the participation of minorities in the public life of European societies on an equal footing with the majority.
5. Disseminate the results of the research not only to the academic audience, but also to the general public at a national and international level.
The main instrument of dissemination to the general public of the RESPECT project was the project website (http://respect.iusspavia.it). To grant the dissemination of the project results to a wider non-English speaking public, a Russian version of the website (http://respect.usu.ru/usu/opencms/) was created and maintained by the Russian partner (URFU).
Each team organised diverse events open to the general public to discuss and present the findings of the project on those issues that were mostly debated in national journals and political arenas, in particular those concerning the construction of mosques in European cities, and the allocation of space for Roma. A number of events were organised, but the most important in terms of public debate were the following:
UCPH organised a workshop on 'Grand mosques, religious freedom and public space', held at the Centre for the Study of Equality and Multiculturalism, University of Copenhagen, on 17 August 2010. The participants in this workshop included mainly researchers from relevant departments (law, politics, and religious studies), as well as a representative from the Danish institute for social research. The workshop discussed an issue, the construction of the so-called Grand Mosque in Copenhagen, which stirred a lively debate in Denmark.
Many CSOs representative participated in these seminars. The series of seminar had a large participation of person interested in the issue both from and outside of the academic domain. Thus, UR1 and the participants to the seminars contributed to the discussion of an issue, that of the 'villages d'insertion', in France that had a wide resonance and was also highly contested in the public arena. UR1s contribution in general showed that, despite the villages d'insertion were presented as instruments to improve the situation of Roma and grant decent living conditions, they were in fact designed as instruments of social control (through CCVT and fences) and marginalisation in the physical and symbolic sense. In this way, far from solving the problem of stigmatisation and marginalisation, the villages d'insertion risk rendering such a problem even more stable and officially accepted.
SCU organised a workshop on 'Respect, tolerance, and space: Social integration guided by the principle of tolerance', 11 November 2010. This workshop included both academic speakers and the participation of many representatives of contacted CSOs. This workshop was the occasion to discuss with the CSOs the findings of the project and try and provide recommendations to those organisations that face the daily problems of the integration of Roma and Muslims.
CEU organised a workshop on 'Urban reconstruction, social exclusion and the Roma in Budapest', on 19 November 2010 at the Central European University, Budapest. Speakers included both academic researchers and representatives of CSOs. The issue discussed in the workshop is the problem of gentrification in general and of some neighbourhoods in Budapest. Gentrification is one of the most urgent segregation trends of present times. It leads to the marginalisation of low status inhabitants and / or ethnic minorities and their replacement by middle class residents. The workshop aimed at expounding the complexity of gentrification by involving various agents in a discussion of the issues. What are the driving forces of the phenomenon? In what institutional structures does it take place? What happens to excluded residents? The workshop sought to answer these questions and others with the hope of furthering academic and policy thinking about socio-political consequences of gentrification.
IUSS organised a workshop 'The space of respect. Mosques and integration in Italy', on 20 June 2011, at the University of Milan. The content of the discussion was the persistent lack of a proper mosque in Milan and the causes thereof. The originality and contribution of this workshop to the general debate was the fact that for the first time in Milan the representatives of the three most important Muslim associations in Milan gathered and discussed together in a public meeting. Moreover, academics, journalists and a representative of the City Council were invited. The discussion was fruitful and it obtained a great attention by local and national press. The scientific coordinator and other researchers present at the event were interviewed by diverse newspapers (see http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PfT0yVy4ERI online). The main results of the discussion were the following two declarations:
i. the three representatives of the Muslim associations agreed that the construction of a number of small mosques in each relevant neighbourhood is a preferable and more viable solution than the construction of a big mosque, that is likely to generate opposition and problems;
ii. the representative of the City Council (former vice-president of the local assembly) committed the current Council to grant the space and authorise the procedures for the construction of a mosque.
Unipmn organised a panel in the Biannual of Democracy, 13-17 April 2011, Turin. The Biannual of Democracy is an open forum of public discussions in which every two years journalists, politicians, public intellectuals, academics and many representatives from the civil society gather to discuss issues of public interest. 2011's theme was on the relation between majority and minorities. The panel on the RESPECT project, in which also a representative of the European Commission Directorate-general (DG) research participated (Simona Ardovino), attracted a good deal of discussion and was followed by a wide audience. http://biennaledemocrasia.it/2011/04/spasi-pubblici-tolleransa-e-rispetto-per-lintegrasione-delle-minoranse/ .
Finally, a number of articles in local and online journals were published. The full list of articles can be found here: http://respect.iusspavia.it/index.php?press
Project website: http://respect.iusspavia.it/
Tolerance has been increasingly invoked as the inspiring ideal of a number of social policies in European democracies. Appeals to tolerance have animated especially the political debates on those policies addressed to accommodate minorities requests. Amongst such requests those for the allocation of public spaces have recently acquired pride of place in the political agendas of many European and extra-European countries (e.g. the allocation of space for Roma sites; Muslims requests to build places of worship). Despite such a generalised political and societal relevance of the notion of tolerance, some problems may occur when policies inspired by it are implemented. In particular, the implementation of tolerance-inspired spatial policies may result in the marginalisation of differences and thus risk undermining social cohesion. What conception of tolerance may be invoked to limit such a risk?
To answer this question, the RESPECT research project studied the relations between tolerance and another cognate ideal, the ideal of respect for persons, in the belief that careful distinctions between the scope and reach of these ideals, and of their possible connections, are required to understand minorities requests for accommodation and the controversies surrounding such requests. Such an understanding is crucial to develop policies capable of responding to minorities requests appropriately and without undermining the pursuit of such other basic democratic values as equality and social cohesion. In particular, the research was geared to test the hypothesis that the demands of tolerance should be made compatible and complemented with those of equal respect for persons in order to make sense of the problems related to majority/minorities relations in the public space and to address them adequately.
Against this backdrop, the RESPECT research project carried out three main groups of case studies addressing important exemplary issues concerning majority / minorities relation in the public space:
1. the allocation of space to build places of worship, notably mosques (in Cyprus, Denmark, Germany, Israel, Italy, Slovenia);
2. the provision of sites for / marginalisation of Roma (in the Czech Republic, France, Hungary, Italy, Lithuania, United Kingdom);
3. the policies of urban regeneration in areas inhabited by migrants (in the Czech Republic, Germany, Israel, Italy, Lithuania, Russia).
Despite the differences across the three groups of cases, all showed that the situations of deprivation and marginalisation suffered by the relevant minorities were largely dependent on their lack of political and social participation on an equal footing with the majority. This goes beyond mere issues of tolerance (what the minorities are allowed or not allowed to do vis-à-vis a specific controversial issues).The failure of local and national administrations to make the minorities voices heard affected the minorities capacity to have an impact on the political agenda and stake their claims for access to public space effectively. The comparative studies showed that this lack of participation is not only a factual problem concerning the minorities disempowerment, but it also raises normative issues, because in the absence of egalitarian channels of political and social participation minorities are treated as society members of a lesser value, as second class individuals. This raises serious issues of justice as minorities are not treated with equal respect, thus undermining the very foundation of their life in a democracy.
The most important policy implication of our research is therefore that equal respect for persons requires an enhancement of the terms of participation of minorities to the political and social life of their society, with a view to redressing the structural inequalities characterising majority / minorities relations. Our findings are of interests to national Civil society organisation (CSO)s, European, national, regional and municipal authorities, as well as to the international academic community engaged in the study of urban integration in different social, religious, cultural, and political contexts.
Project context and objectives:
Concept and objectives
Tolerance has been increasingly invoked as the inspiring ideal of a number of social policies in European democracies. The concession of linguistic rights to minorities, the promotion of policies of affirmative action, and the distribution of public funds and spaces for building places for worship are just some examples of the many ways in which tolerance may be seen to inspire the political agenda of diverse European countries. But what does the ideal of tolerance mean and require of societies committed to it? In what ways can social policies be seen to embody the ideal of tolerance? And, on a more theoretical note, on what grounds may tolerance-inspired policies be justified so as to be acceptable to a culturally diverse citizenry?
Besides such conceptual issues, related to the formulation and justification of tolerance-inspired policies, problems may also concern their implementation. Social policies inspired by the ideal of tolerance are often devised to secure such fundamental values as the equality of treatment of all citizens and the promotion of social cohesion. However, the implementation of such policies may arguably risk undermining the bases for the pursuit of those values. Thus they may represent a threat to the equality of treatment of all citizens as they risk creating different categories of citizenship with which diverse rights and obligations are associated, and, in so doing, they may end up undermining the bases of social cohesion (causing resentments, and ultimately intolerance). Hence the question: 'Does the implementation of tolerance-inspired policies actually risk undermining the pursuit of such basic democratic commitments as those to equality and social cohesion'? If so, what conception of tolerance, grounded on what bases, may be invoked to limit such a risk?
To answer these questions, we decided to focus on a specific set of cases related to spatial policies. Cases belonging to this family include policies for the distribution of spaces to build places of worship and faith schools, to provide sites for Roma and other travelling populations, as well as housing policies for migrants. The study of such policies allowed us to concentrate on potential cases of marginalisation and stigmatisation of differences, out of which issues of equal respect for persons arise.
On this basis, we aimed to establish:
1. Whether and to what extent spatial policies do (and should) embody the ideal of tolerance, as well as what exactly this ideal would require of them;
2. What impact tolerance-inspired policies of such kinds have on social cohesion.
In doing so, we tested the tenability of the hypothesis that the demands of tolerance should be made compatible and complemented with those of equal respect for persons in order to make sense of the problems related to majority / minorities relations in the public space and to address them adequately.
The goal of the project
To address the issues above, the project set itself a twofold goal:
1. To clarify and distinguish the various notions of tolerance and their possible grounds of justification to capture the attitude with which spatial policies might be devised in culturally diverse polities.
2. To study how tolerance-inspired policies may be devised to combine the basic democratic commitment to equality with the aspiration to accommodate cultural diversity without undermining social cohesion. To this aim, we tested the tenability of the hypothesis that the demands of tolerance should be made compatible and complemented with those of equal respect for persons in order to contribute to develop, justify and implement spatial policies meeting the desiderata above.
In order to achieve the Goal, the project aimed to realise the following objectives:
Objective 1: to advance the state of the art in the field of cultural and religious interactions by developing a multidisciplinary conceptual taxonomy aimed to clarify and distinguish (a) the concepts of tolerance and equal respect and (b) the grounds of justification of tolerance-inspired policies. On (a), we identified the possible declinations in which one might conceive of the concepts of tolerance (from modus vivendi to recognition) and equal respect (distinguishing respect from such concepts as esteem and honour). To pursue (b), we explored different grounds on which tolerance-inspired policies may be justified, distinguishing between equal respect, non-discrimination, equality of treatment, neutrality, impartiality, non-interference and indifference. The taxonomy thus constructed including glossaries, conceptual maps and original working papers was multidisciplinary in kind, so as to ensure a nuanced outlook on the matter.
Objective 2: to increase in-depth knowledge of the way in which (some formulation of) the ideal of tolerance has informed the development of spatial policies in culturally diverse polities. To this aim, we focused on a set of case studies capable of (i) offering some ground to study how tolerance-inspired policies have been formulated, justified and implemented across and outside Europe, on a matter (ii) whose analysis may reveal conflicts between tolerance, equality and social cohesion and solidarity. To pursue this objective, and to increase the societal relevance of our research at this stage, we invited the contribution of a number of locally active CSOs, expert in dealing with questions of social exclusion, urban integration, migration and national minorities.
Objective 3: to increase knowledge of the influence played by local cultural diversities on the way in which the ideal of tolerance has been declined in national contexts. To pursue this objective, we carried out a comparison, aiming at characterising the differences and similarities between the considered countries on the treatment of the cases studied under objective 2. In particular, the analysis was conducted comparing spatial policies across a large and encompassing sample of European Union (EU) Member States (Italy, Germany, United Kingdom, Czech Republic, Slovenia, Denmark, Lithuania, France, Hungary and Cyprus) and between these and an associated state (Israel) and an International cooperation partner country (ICPC) (Russia). This enabled both commonalities and differences to emerge out of a broad sample of ways in which a society may be organised and tolerance-related issues addressed. What is more, the comparative consideration of Israel and Russia helped us to adopt an extra-European outlook, so as to consider policies of integration across Europe from the point of view of different traditions and value systems.
Objective 4: to extrapolate from the studies above the possible connections between tolerance and equal respect for persons. The cases studied under objective 2 and their comparative analysis (under objective 3) allowed us to concentrate on potential issues of marginalisation and stigmatisation of differences, out of which issues of equal respect arise. Accordingly, we aimed to test the tenability of the hypothesis that the demands of tolerance should be made compatible and complemented with those of equal respect for persons in order to make sense of the problems related to majority / minorities relations in the public space and to address them adequately. Besides their theoretical interest, our results were used to inform European and national policy makers and to develop possible recommendations to devise policies capable of addressing the possible tensions between tolerance and social cohesion in culturally diverse polities.
Although mutually distinct, work on the four objectives of the project were fruitfully interdependent. Thus, for example, while the conceptual taxonomy developed under objective 1 provided a framework for addressing the case studies on spatial policies under objective 2, it was open to revision in the light of the results of policy-based studies. Similarly, the formulation of our research hypothesis provided guidance in the conduction of empirical research, but was open also to reformulation in the light of the findings of our case studies (Objective 2) and their comparative analysis (objective 3), as well as to the indications received from CSOs (objective 2) so as to make sure it reflects and engages with the perspectives of those actually involved in, and concerned by, our considered cases.
The project was developed in response to the topic 3.3.1 ('Tolerance and cultural diversity'), within Area 8.3.3. ('Cultural interactions in an international perspective') of Activity 8.3 ('Major trends in society and their implications'). The area's main objective reads as follows: to study European societies in a context of increasingly diverse cultural backgrounds. In particular, an assessment of multiculturalism, cultural interactions and their relationship to integration, social cohesion in urban spaces, tolerance, as well as intolerance, racism and xenophobia should be addressed in order to provide recommendations for future EU policies. The involvement and contributions of relevant non-European teams should be assured.
In particular the project addressed the following issues in the area:
1. to study culturally diverse societies with special attention to multiculturalism, cultural interactions and their relationship to integration, and social cohesion in urban spaces;
2. more specifically, and in line with what explicitly stated in topic 3.3.1 to address and clarify the notion of tolerance and the (other) concepts involved and determine those factors which have contributed, or can contribute to, the construction and the maintenance of tolerant, culturally diverse societies with a view to better formulation of policies at a national, regional and EU level.
1. How did this project study culturally diverse societies with special attention to multiculturalism, cultural interactions and their relationship to integration, and social cohesion in urban spaces?
Objectives 2 and 3 of the RESPECT project were devoted to the thorough empirically-grounded study of culturally diverse societies, with the specific aim to increase knowledge of the way in which (some formulation of) the ideal of tolerance has informed the development of spatial policies, and of the influence played by local cultural diversities on the way in which the ideal of tolerance has been declined in national contexts.
More precisely, as explained above, the case studies and their comparative analysis were conducted with a twofold aim, namely to establish whether and to what extent spatial policies do (and should) embody the ideal of tolerance, as well as what exactly this ideal would require of them, as well as what impact tolerance-inspired policies of such kind have on social cohesion. This allowed us to address directly the issues of multiculturalism, cultural interactions and integration, as well as social cohesion with a special attention to urban spaces to which the considered policies apply. Moreover, our empirical studies were identified in details and conducted following the contribution of local CSOs. This ensured that our approach targets problem of actual relevance for the citizens directly involved in the issues under study.
The case studies were carried out across a broad sample of European countries, representative of different regional areas: northern Europe (Denmark), western Europe (France, Germany and the United Kingdom), central-eastern Europe (Czech Republic, Lithuania, Slovenia and Hungary), Southern Europe (Italy) and South-Eastern Europe (Cyprus). Moreover, in line with the work programme's request, the involvement and contribution of relevant non-European teams was ensured thanks to the presence of Israel and Russia. The relevance of these countries for the themes studied by the RESPECT project is obvious if one considers their traditional and extensive experience of dealing with large minorities in connection with, more or less conflict-laden, spatial issues.
2. How did this project address and clarify the notion of tolerance and the other concepts involved and determine those factors which have contributed, or can contribute to, the construction and the maintenance of tolerant, culturally diverse societies with a view to better formulation of policies at a national, regional and EU level?
The clarification of the notion of tolerance with a view to the formulation of better policies was the main concern of, respectively, objectives 1 and 4 (this latter drawing on material from objectives 2 and 3).
The multidisciplinary review of the literature and conceptual taxonomy developed under objective 1 aimed precisely to disentangle, from different disciplinary angles, the various meanings possibly associated with the ideal of tolerance, and grounds offered for its justification, from within diverse cultural perspectives. This was done with the instruments of conceptual analysis and historical reconstruction. More precisely, as stated above, we (a) identified the senses in which one might conceive of the concepts of tolerance and equal respect and (b) explored different grounds on which tolerance-inspired policies may be justified.
The research activities aimed to (a) provided the basis for the case studies and comparative analysis under objectives 2 and 3 so as to bring out the embodiment of the notion of tolerance in different historical, social, religious, cultural, linguistic and political contexts as requested by topic 3.3.1. The studies carried out to pursue (b) prepared the ground for testing our main research hypothesis (on the fruitfulness of complementing references to tolerance with those to equal respect for persons) and, in light of our findings, to prepare recommendations for the formulation of policies capable of addressing the possible tensions between tolerance and social cohesion in culturally diverse polities at a national, regional and EU level.
Project results:
Objective 1
One of the main contributions of the RESPECT Project consists in the development of a conceptual taxonomy to clarify the concepts of tolerance, respect and space both taken individually and in their mutual connections. Appeals to tolerance and respect are very much vivid in all political and academic debates revolving around policies for the accommodation of minority claims, including policies for the distribution of urban space. However, it is far from clear and uncontroversial what they mean and require of societies committed to them. This lack of agreement at a conceptual level translates into political, social and institutional problems once such policies are implemented both in terms of the interpretation of minority claims and of the development of policies capable of responding to them appropriately. Therefore the conceptual groundwork carried out in the first six months of the RESPECT project is crucial to enhance the understanding of minorities calls for tolerance and respect in urban areas.
Such a conceptual clarification was carried out through a thorough review of existing studies on themes of toleration and respect in the urban space within the fields of social, political, moral and legal philosophy, sociology, social anthropology, applied ethics, social geography, legal and urban studies. This work led to the completion of a multidisciplinary thematic bibliography and a collection of investigative works in several European and extra-European languages (English, French, German, Italian, Greek, Danish, Russian, Lithuanian, Slovenian, Polish, Chinese, Czech, Hebrew, Hungarian, Slovak). This review of the literature served as a basis on which the analysis of the concepts of tolerance, respect and space was carried out. The results of this groundwork were presented in a conceptual map including working definitions of the key terms of our research. Besides representing a contribution to the existing studies on tolerance, respect and space in its own right, the conceptual map is meant to provide common ground for the next, applied phases of the project.
Moreover, the research carried out to complete the conceptual map informed the writing of papers for the dissemination of the project's first results to the international academic community. The papers, discussed during a workshop held at the University of Copenhagen in June 2010 (deliverable 4.1) have been initially published in an electronic version in the RESPECT project working paper series (ISSN No: 2097-5816). They were then revised and divided into two sets of thematically integrated articles submitted for publication in two prestigious journal's special issues. Articles addressing the problem of the accommodation of minorities claims were submitted to the European Journal of Philosophy for a special issue on 'Toleration, respect and the accommodation of minority claims'; articles engaging with the limits of toleration and the problem of groups tolerance were submitted to the European Journal of Political Theory for a special issue on 'Frontiers of toleration and respect: non-moral approaches and groups relations'.
The academic bibliography (deliverable 1) can be found here: http://respect.iusspavia.it/?bibliography .
The conceptual map (deliverable 3) can be found here: http://respect.iusspavia.it/?conceptual_map .
Special issue of the European Journal of Philosophy (deliverable 4.2): 'Toleration, respect and the accommodation of minority claims'. The articles in the issue built on the analysis of the concepts of toleration and respect as political normative ideals to study how the appeal to these values may justify different strategies for the accommodation of religious, cultural and ethical minorities (with a special emphasis on the concession of rights to legal exemptions), and to conclude with a specific focus on the requirements that the principle of respect poses on the toleration and freedom of association of illiberal groups. They thus aim to make a qualified contribution to the many current philosophical debates on toleration and respect by clarifying their conceptual and normative relations qua basic principles informing liberal institutions.
The articles of the special issue seek to advance the discussion on the relation between toleration and respect in two blind spots of both multicultural and liberal approaches: the scope for non-moral or prudential accounts of toleration, and the status of social groups as possible subjects / agents involved in relations of toleration and respect. On the one hand, the moralising tendency of recent political philosophy, which requires unconditional equal treatment out of principle, tends to mistrust instrumental accounts of toleration and respect; on the other hand, the frequent mention of the role of groups is not matched by much attention to their normative status and to the difference they can make to the theory and practice of toleration.
Objective 2
The conceptual clarification thus achieved provided the framework within which three different sets of case studies were carried out in the second phase of the project. The case studies represent a crucial step in the research geared as they were to unveil the tensions between democraciesaspirational commitments to respect and tolerance and the factual marginalisation of minorities in the urban space. Selected case studies included:
1. issues of allocation of public space for building places of worship, notably mosques (studied countries: Italy, Denmark, Germany, Slovenia, Israel, Cyprus);
2. problems connected to the urban marginalisation and segregation of Roma and other travelling populations (studied countries: France, United Kingdom, Lithuania, Italy, Czech Republic, Hungary);
3. housing policies in multiethnic cities and the policies for urban regeneration in areas inhabited by minorities (studied countries: Lithuania, Italy, Germany, Israel, Russia, Czech Republic).
The case studies were carried out in close cooperation with CSOs active nationally and locally on relevant issues (see Deliverable 5). The results of this phase were discussed at a working seminar held in Vilnius in January 2011 and have been disseminated widely through the press both locally and nationally (see deliverable 7.2). Moreover, two journal's special issues were planned to make sure the outputs of this phase reach also a specialised, beside a general, audience. Works from within the field of political philosophy were included in a special issue of the journal 'Notizie di Politeia. Rivista di etica e scelte pubbliche', on equal respect and the distribution of public spaces, contributions to political and social studies were included in a special issue of the journal 'Politics in Central Europe' on 'Dealing with minorities: Integration, tolerance and the risks of segregation'.
Special issue of the journal 'Politics in Central Europe' (deliverable 7.1): 'Dealing with minorities: integration, tolerance and the risks of segregation'.
The papers covered the following issues:
1. policies of toleration of particular states from a case study or comparative perspective;
2. examples of good or bad practices of the policies of (spatial) integration of minorities; 3. the central European approaches to minority integration within a more general European or theoretical framework;
4. (spatial) marginalisation and segregation of the Roma, travellers, and other groups of ethnic, cultural, or religious character;
5. distribution of public space;
6. approaches to group identity and its construction.
All papers in the issue concentrated on the studying the tenability and the implications of the idea that toleration, based on respect, and implying the instrumental recognition of previously excluded identity, becomes part of the general scheme for fulfilling the promises of democratic citizenship where all people are considered and treated with equal respect. Such a general issues was investigated through a set of case studies concerning issues of distribution of public space.
The case studies (deliverable 6) were divided into three thematic sets as follows:
1. Distribution of spaces to build places of worship (notably mosques), involving the following countries: Denmark, Cyprus, Germany, Israel, Italy, Slovenia.
Case studies in this set aimed to analyse and discuss the problems encountered by minorities requesting public space to build places of worship and the types of responses given by public institutions (mainly at a municipal level). In particular, research concentrated on the analysis of policies for the distribution of public spaces to Muslim minorities for the building of mosques in the urban areas of different European and extra-European countries: Denmark, Germany, Italy, Slovenia, Israel and Cyprus.
Our analysis led to the following important result. If we frame the issue of the accommodation of Muslim minorities in urban areas in terms of respect rather than tolerance, a new whole set of issues emerges. And this has important policy implications. The response to Muslim requests could not be merely based on non-interference or symbolic recognition (as tolerance demands), but would require a serious reflection on the terms and conditions of the political participation of minorities (whether they are composed by citizens or residents) in (at least) local decision-making processes and on the quality of the reasons offered to justify political decisions to them.
2. Provision of sites for marginalisation of Roma and other travelling populations, involving the following countries: Czech Republic, France, Hungary, Italy, Lithuania, The United Kingdom (Wales).
The aim of this case-family was to study the problem of the concession of public spaces for the settlement of Roma and other travelling populations. The case studies employed a common analytical framework and research methodology: each case study focused both on the institutional policies and regulations on the concession of spaces for Roma settlements and on the public debates arising in local communities. Studied countries include: France, Italy, Hungary, Lithuania and the United Kingdom.
On the basis of our research, we came to the conclusion that policies, either at local, national and European level should be much more nuanced than it has so far been the case so as to reflect the multifaceted situation of Roma and their heterogeneous needs and composition. They should also take into due consideration the tendency of many Roma to housing stability so as to provide suitable spatial solutions that do not force them to nomadism and to live, at any rate, in precarious and unsafe conditions.
3. Housing policies and ghettoization of minorities in urban areas, involving the following countries: Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Israel, Italy, Russia.
This case-family aimed to collect a representative set of examples of housing policies having an impact on the living conditions of minorities in urban areas. In particular, the case studies focused on the risk of ghettoisation of minorities (migrants in particular) and on the (possible) solutions devised by local authorities. Studied countries include: Germany, Italy, Israel, Russian Federation, Lithuania and the Czech Republic.
What such cases suggest is that whatever approach to policy is adopted, whether top-down or horizontal, for its success it is crucial that the perspectives of marginalised individuals be enclosed as much as possible so that policies are not simply imposed on them but are devised with them. In other words, any policy against the ghettoisation of minorities requires an active political participation on the part of the relevant minorities and must be arrived at through an open, inclusive, public dialogue. This method seems to stand the best chances to make sure that minorities (in general, and migrant in particular) are not simply tolerated, but respected: treated as equals.
Objective 3
The activities carried out in the second phase of the research, objectives 3 and 4, were mainly concerned with the comparisons between the case studies (objective 3) and the extrapolation from the previous studies of the connections between the ideals of tolerance and equal respect for persons (objective 4).
In particular, under objective 3, multiple pairings between diverse countries were decided in order to draft comparative papers and overviews on the three sets of case studies written in objective 2 (distribution of spaces to build places of worship, marginalisation of Roma in the public space, housing policies and ghettoization of minorities in urban areas). The countries to compare were chosen on the basis of the criteria of either similarity or diversity of the countries, so as to dig out either connections or differences between the studied countries. Such a comparative work allowed the project's participants to understand the general tendencies on the current European situations concerning tolerance, respect, minorities and the distribution of public space. The results of this phase were presented at the workshop 'Respect and tolerance in Europe: a comparative perspective', held at the University of Nicosia on 1-2 July 2011 (deliverable 10). The comparative work contributed to the drafting of three comparative overviews on the three families of case studies, whose main role was that of providing scientific evidence for the policy briefs.
Despite the differences across the three groups of cases, all showed that the situations of deprivation and marginalisation suffered by the relevant minorities were largely dependent on their lack of political and social participation on an equal footing with the majority. This goes beyond mere issues of tolerance (what the minorities are allowed or not allowed to do vis-à-vis a specific controversial issues).The failure of local and national administrations to make the minorities voices heard affected the minoritiescapacity to have an impact on the political agenda and stake their claims for access to public space effectively. The comparative studies showed that this lack of participation is not only a factual problem concerning the minorities disempowerment, but it also raises normative issues, because in the absence of egalitarian channels of political and social participation minorities are treated as society members of a lesser value, as second class individuals. This raises serious issues of justice as minorities are not treated with equal respect, thus undermining the very foundation of their life in a democracy.
Objective 4
In objective 4, the activities of the consortium aimed at the production of outcomes in two areas: scientific results on the relation between tolerance and respect in the distribution of public space, and the dissemination to the policy makers of the main results of the project. To purse the first task, papers were drafted to be included in special issues discussing the interconnections between toleration and respect (Journal of Applied Philosophy, The Journal of Sociology and Social Anthropology) and articles discussing more specific issues related to different uses of the public space (Journal of Urban Affairs). Moreover, book proposals (for Routledge and Central European University Press) were prepared and successfully submitted to the publishers. The final contributions included in the journalsvspecial issues and in the books were discussed in the project's final conference, held in Pavia, on 3-5 November 2011 (deliverable 13).
Special issue of the Journal of Applied Philosophy (deliverable 12.1): 'Toleration and respect'.
The articles in this issue concern the meaning and the place of the notion of respect relative to the ideals of toleration and equal freedom in democratic societies. Specific questions that will be addressed include: Who deserves respect? In what form? Are respect and recognition interpretations of toleration, or do they represent different, and sometimes conflicting notions? What beliefs, attitudes, and conduct does respect involve? What are the spaces of civic cohabitation where respect amongst people finds expression? What are the limits of the notion of respect?
Special issue of the Russian Journal of Sociology and Social Anthropology (deliverable 12.2): 'Toleration and respect'.
The issue is devoted to the problem of connection between the concepts of toleration and respect. The problem of underpinning toleration in contemporary society is analysed. The issue starts with classical understanding of toleration as a moral ideal (Peter Nicholson) and the Darwall's distinction of recognition respect and appraisal respect. Then, the main paradigms of the interrelations between these concepts are analysed and some important contemporary non-trivial cases (such as the case of conscientious objection) are discussed. The issue for the first time provides the Russian reader with a comprehensive picture of contemporary debates in multiculturalism, toleration and respect.
Special issue of the Journal of Urban Affairs on space and pluralism (deliverable 12.3).
The originality of this special issue lies in its attempt to combine the methodologies of two different disciplines, political theory and urban studies, to clarify the sense in which life in the urban space poses specific issues of tolerance.
Edited collection of essays submitted to the Routledge studies in social and political thought, Routledge (deliverable 14.1).
The book 'How groups matter. Challenges of toleration in pluralistic societies' is interdisciplinary, in a way that opens up a wide potential audience: the editors and authors proceeded from a dialogue between political philosophers, social scientists and jurists, thereby facing multiple methods and offering solutions not only to conceptual, but also to practical and legal issues. The original contribution of the book to the academic debate of multiple disciplines is the attempt to provide a full analysis of the importance of social groups both from a normative and methodological point of view. The thesis of the book is that there cannot be an adequate treatment of groups without a correct understanding of their nature.
Edited collection of essays submitted to the central European university press (deliverable 14.2).
The book Space and Pluralism is based on the original idea of bringing together theoretical and empirical work on cultural pluralism, space, respect and tolerance under conditions of diversity, and with special, though not exclusive, regard to cities. Besides the wide multidisciplinary approach, including urban studies, social geography, political theory, sociology and political philosophy, the book's main originality lies in the connection of space and pluralism, two notions of the utmost importance for diverse disciplines that have so far been kept separate.
Finally, other individual papers were submitted and published in international and national peer-reviewed journals.
Besides the scientific presentations of the results just outlined, the RESPECT project's findings were also meant for the dissemination among policy makers and the general public. To this end, our results constituted also the basis for the preparation of three policy briefs on the following themes:
1. European policy brief on the discrimination of Roma in the public space (deliverable 11.1)
The Roma situation is a unique example of a generally discriminated minority that challenges some of the EU's fundamental values. By contrast, solving the Roma question at the European level could reinforce the political unity of the EU.
2. European policy brief on the debates about the construction of mosques in Europe (deliverable 11.2)
Countries of EU have all recognised the right to freedom of religion in their constitutions, following the declaration of the United Nations and the European charters on human rights. But despite such constitutional and conventional protections, the construction of mosques has faced massive opposition throughout Europe. This resistance to the construction of mosques challenges the EU's fundamental values and put into jeopardy the integration of Muslim migrants. Against this problematic backdrop, the following question is in need of a response: are European societies meeting their commitment to freedom of religion? Is the resistance to the construction of mosques to be solved by an appeal to the idea of tolerance?
3. European policy brief on the policies of urban regeneration in the areas inhabited by minorities (deliverable 11.3)
The city might be considered the ideal context in which people having different values and interests could peacefully interact, while treating each other as equals. But, actually, it is often the case that minorities are marginalised and that differences are likely to create conflicts and acts of intolerance. Despite such a condition may seem to reproduce a general trend in European cities, conflicts are not our fate, and there are successful examples of peaceful cohabitation. The reflection on the principles informing the good practices can provide useful insights on policies that are both respectful of minorities and conducive to social cohesion.
The large and varied results of the RESPECT project thus offer an important contribution to the realisation of a complex and comprehensive work seeking to respond to the need - widely recognised at a European level - to protect cultural diversities, and avoid their discrimination, stigmatisation and marginalisation, within socially cohesive urban spaces.
Potential impact:
The potential impact of the RESPECT project concerns four areas and may be summarised as follows. The project aims to:
1. advance the state of the art in the field of toleration, respect and the treatment of minorities in the urban space among European societies and between them and the rest of the world;
2. Enhance interdisciplinary cooperation in the researched areas between researchers in Europe and in other relevant geographic regions;
3. devise strategies to involve relevant communities, stakeholders, practitioners in the making and/or diffusion of research;
4. improve the formulation, development and implementation of policies;
5. disseminate the results of the research not only to the academic audience, but also to the general public at a local, national and international level.
Specifically:
1. Advance the state of the art in the field of toleration, respect and the treatment of minorities in the urban space among European societies and between them and the rest of the world
The contribution of the RESPECT project to and its impact on the state of the art in the relevant disciplines may be measured by the scientific publications throughout the whole project. The Consortium devised a multilevel and multidisciplinary strategy to target diverse scientific communities and fields (political theory, political philosophy, political science, sociology, legal theory, human geography). The first tool for scientific dissemination was the RESPECT project working paper series (ISSN No: 2037-5816), freely accessible upon registration on the project's website. Several special issues of peer-reviewed journals in diverse disciplines were prepared. These include: Politics in Central Europe, Notizie di Politeia, European Journal of Political Theory, European Journal of Philosophy, Journal of Applied Philosophy, Journal of Sociology and Social Anthropology, Journal of Urban Affairs. Moreover, the proposals for two edited collection of essays with contributions from the project were submitted to renowned international publishers: 'How groups matter. Challenges of toleration in pluralistic societies' (Routledge), and 'Space and pluralism' (central European university press). Finally, many individual members of the project published several articles in national journals in local languages so as to differentiate the outcomes and maximise the breadth of the audience. For a complete list of publications see the previous section.
A common thread cutting across all the publications was the attempt to connect empirical and normative issues in a way that is both sensitive to specific contexts, but still informed by general normative considerations of justice. The high quality of the international journals and publishers will guarantee a robust and wide impact in the fields concerned.
2. Enhance interdisciplinary cooperation in the researched areas between researchers in Europe and in other relevant geographic regions
The goal of promoting an interdisciplinary cooperation with the international partners of the project was achieved through the organisation of three project's workshops and one final conference:
- Workshop on 'Toleration, respect and space: concepts, conceptions and applications' 21-23 June 2010, Centre for the Study of Equality and Multiculturalism, University of Copenhagen.
- RESPECT project's working seminar, 19 July 2001, Amberton Hotel, Vilnius (Lithuania).
- Workshop 'Respect and tolerance in Europe: a comparative perspective' - 1-2 July 2001 University of Nicosia, Nicosia, Cyprus.
- Debating toleration: attitudes, practices and institutions, 3-5 November 2011, Faculty of Political Science, University of Pavia (Italy).
The discussions in each meeting were characterised by a fruitful exchange of ideas. The project's participants contributed with their diverse disciplinary competences to lively debates. The workshops gave the opportunity to the project partners to make contacts with international experts (academics and practitioners), that were invited to present original contributions or discuss the project papers. The success of these meetings is proved by the willingness and intention of the participants to continue the cooperation in future research projects.
3. Devise strategies to involve relevant communities, stakeholders, practitioners in the making and / or diffusion of research
All teams were committed to the involvement of CSOs and practitioners in the fields of minority rights, allocation of public space, and religious freedom. Such a task was pursued not only with a view to making contacts with CSOs and stakeholders, but also with a view to conducting a research as much as possible connected to the real needs of the parties involved. In order to ensure an empirically appropriate completion of the case studies on spatial policies, each team surveyed possible CSOs to make contact with in order to receive first hand data on the local case studies. After a preliminary contact with the identified CSOs, they were involved in the process of drafting the case studies in diverse roles: they provided access to data bases, first hand data, or informal materials to the consortium teams. Moreover, some members of the CSOs were invited by local teams to participate as discussants in local seminars devoted to the case studies.
The choice of the CSOs was done on the basis of the following criteria: the CSO should be specialised on the issues at stake, locally grounded, and willing to collaborate. The selected CSOs and other agencies with which the RESPECT teams made contacts ranged from charitable organisations, religious associations, CSOs campaigning for the safeguard of minority rights, networks of associations for the inclusion of migrants, associations devoted to the improvements of the conditions of Roma, public and private research centres, specialised public agencies on immigration.
The cooperation with the contacted CSOs proved necessary and fruitful to strengthen the empirical accuracy of the case studies. In particular, the diverse inputs received from the CSOs enriched the information on the spatial dimension of the case studies. But contacts with CSOs were made also in order to include other subjects coming from the civil society in the set of targeted audiences. Indeed, each team made contacts with relevant CSOs not only with a view to receiving materials to draft the case studies and an informed feedback on them, but also with a view to contacting the CSOs in the final phase of the project (objective 4) as addressees of policy recommendations.
4. Improve the formulation, development and implementation of policies
To meet such a goal, and following the indications of the Project Officer, three European policy briefs were drafted in the three areas of case studies:
i. the debate about the construction of mosques in European towns (deliverable 12.2);
ii. the discrimination of Roma in the public space (deliverable 12.1);
iii. the policies of urban regeneration in areas inhabited by minorities (deliverable 12.3).
Regarding the debate on the construction of mosques in Europe the findings of the project have shown that what is lacking in all circumstances is for Muslims to have an equal opportunity to participate in the decision making processes of the communities where they live. Building on this, administrators should encourage all the actors involved in the process to meet, to hear the arguments of the others and to negotiate together.
Muslims of recent immigration often lack the status of citizens. That is frequently the cause of their lack of political representation. There is hence a need to re-discuss the laws on voting rights at local elections to meet the need of representation of non-EU migrants and foster their political participation. This is particularly urgent, for Muslims frequently lack a proper structure to serve as a unique interlocutor with the state and administrators. Moreover, the legal frameworks that apply to the recognition of a religious group are often built after the Christian churches model. There is hence a need to rethink the criteria for the recognition of religious groups or for electing interlocutors of public officials in accordance with the non-unitary profile of Muslim populations.
Participation should help reaching a decision, hopefully shared by the parties, with a view to fostering respectful relations between the parties involved. To achieve such a goal institutions should ensure that in the decision procedures regarding the construction of mosques, whether at a national or local level, Muslim minorities be actually treated as equal members and that all the parties involved have an equal chance to have a say.
On the issue of discrimination of Roma in the public space the project's intended impact concerns the following policy recommendations.
As many countries have adopted specific transposition measures of the European law with regard to the right of free movement and residence of migrants, EU should ensure that the rule of law is applied equally with respect to persons coming from all EU Member States, old and new, and restrict the way in which each country can interpret the law on freedom of movement.
In accordance with the claims of the Frame-Statute of the Romani nation, EU should recognise for all European members, regardless of their supposed ethnic or cultural identity, and without requiring them to prove any such identity, specific rights entailed by the right to mobility, including the right to the acknowledgement of mobile accommodation as a domicile, the right to park on private areas, and the right to fit-for-purpose schooling. In other words, the findings of the project show that current national and EU legislation implicitly discriminates against nomadic peoples.
To overcome such problems, it should become possible to acquire European citizenship independently of national citizenship in any Member State. The Roma minority is a European minority because its members prefigure a European citizenship with a transnational character, i.e. whose associated system of rights does not depend upon national borders. Members of Roma minorities should be granted, like any other legal foreigner, the right to vote in (at least) local elections on the basis of their residency and in European elections on the basis of their transnational European citizenship. The Roma would become a test case of the EU's validity as a unified political entity.
Concerning the issue of the policies of urban regeneration in the areas inhabited by minorities the project impact may be summarised as follows. On the basis of our findings and the good practices analysed in the case studies, institutions that aim at reducing urban marginalisation due to relational inequalities should:
- Support a genuinely multicultural educational system (i.e. one that goes beyond the celebration of superficial differences) that can help future citizens to acknowledge one another as equals, independent of their values and interests. Policy makers should follow the good practices, such as that of the Flying Carpet (Turin), for it was a project involving both children of primary schools and their parents. Migrants were publicly treated as equals not because of or despite their differences, but by respecting their differences.
- Make available public spaces that can support marginalised individuals and groups' inclusion in the public sphere with a view to securing one of the most basic conditions for developing a public claim: the chance to literally meet other people with whom it is possible to share some interests and values. Relevant examples of these principles include the intercultural gardens (Germany) and mixed parks (Tel-Aviv).
- Incentivise the presence and activity of migrants and minorities within the civil society, so that their impact on the political sphere does not strictly and necessarily depend on their political rights. Besides the recognition of political rights, the case of cultural associations is particularly relevant for enhancing respect between majority and minorities. On the one hand, as the case of S. Salvario (Turin) showed, if migrants have the opportunity to show and explain their cultures and values, it is more likely that majority acknowledge them as worthy to be pursued. On the other hand, by ensuring visibility to these values, migrants and minorities could try to either modify or be included in the social standards that are embedded in the dominant culture and deeply disadvantage them.
To support the inclusion of migrants and minorities within the civil society, local institutions should:
- incentivise the presence of migrants within existent associations through, for instance, a system of fiscal deductions for those associations that include migrants as members;
- support migrants' associations by:
i. providing them a regime of rent control for the location of the associations;
ii. simplifying the requirements that they have to fulfil in order to be publicly financed; or
iii. granting public funding to sustain specific associations (system of quotas).
So, the overall expected impact of the RESPECT project concerns the link between participation and social cohesion. One of the project main contributions is the demonstration that the appeal to the idea of toleration is not enough to guarantee an egalitarian treatment of the minorities in urban areas. Minorities risk being merely 'tolerated' and not fully recognised as equal partners in the public arena. To pursue such an aim the project claims that the idea of equal respect for persons is better equipped to ground the full inclusion and participation of minorities in contemporary European democracies. The RESPECT project showed that there cannot be a real social cohesion without the participation of minorities in the public life of European societies on an equal footing with the majority.
5. Disseminate the results of the research not only to the academic audience, but also to the general public at a national and international level.
The main instrument of dissemination to the general public of the RESPECT project was the project website (http://respect.iusspavia.it). To grant the dissemination of the project results to a wider non-English speaking public, a Russian version of the website (http://respect.usu.ru/usu/opencms/) was created and maintained by the Russian partner (URFU).
Each team organised diverse events open to the general public to discuss and present the findings of the project on those issues that were mostly debated in national journals and political arenas, in particular those concerning the construction of mosques in European cities, and the allocation of space for Roma. A number of events were organised, but the most important in terms of public debate were the following:
UCPH organised a workshop on 'Grand mosques, religious freedom and public space', held at the Centre for the Study of Equality and Multiculturalism, University of Copenhagen, on 17 August 2010. The participants in this workshop included mainly researchers from relevant departments (law, politics, and religious studies), as well as a representative from the Danish institute for social research. The workshop discussed an issue, the construction of the so-called Grand Mosque in Copenhagen, which stirred a lively debate in Denmark.
Many CSOs representative participated in these seminars. The series of seminar had a large participation of person interested in the issue both from and outside of the academic domain. Thus, UR1 and the participants to the seminars contributed to the discussion of an issue, that of the 'villages d'insertion', in France that had a wide resonance and was also highly contested in the public arena. UR1s contribution in general showed that, despite the villages d'insertion were presented as instruments to improve the situation of Roma and grant decent living conditions, they were in fact designed as instruments of social control (through CCVT and fences) and marginalisation in the physical and symbolic sense. In this way, far from solving the problem of stigmatisation and marginalisation, the villages d'insertion risk rendering such a problem even more stable and officially accepted.
SCU organised a workshop on 'Respect, tolerance, and space: Social integration guided by the principle of tolerance', 11 November 2010. This workshop included both academic speakers and the participation of many representatives of contacted CSOs. This workshop was the occasion to discuss with the CSOs the findings of the project and try and provide recommendations to those organisations that face the daily problems of the integration of Roma and Muslims.
CEU organised a workshop on 'Urban reconstruction, social exclusion and the Roma in Budapest', on 19 November 2010 at the Central European University, Budapest. Speakers included both academic researchers and representatives of CSOs. The issue discussed in the workshop is the problem of gentrification in general and of some neighbourhoods in Budapest. Gentrification is one of the most urgent segregation trends of present times. It leads to the marginalisation of low status inhabitants and / or ethnic minorities and their replacement by middle class residents. The workshop aimed at expounding the complexity of gentrification by involving various agents in a discussion of the issues. What are the driving forces of the phenomenon? In what institutional structures does it take place? What happens to excluded residents? The workshop sought to answer these questions and others with the hope of furthering academic and policy thinking about socio-political consequences of gentrification.
IUSS organised a workshop 'The space of respect. Mosques and integration in Italy', on 20 June 2011, at the University of Milan. The content of the discussion was the persistent lack of a proper mosque in Milan and the causes thereof. The originality and contribution of this workshop to the general debate was the fact that for the first time in Milan the representatives of the three most important Muslim associations in Milan gathered and discussed together in a public meeting. Moreover, academics, journalists and a representative of the City Council were invited. The discussion was fruitful and it obtained a great attention by local and national press. The scientific coordinator and other researchers present at the event were interviewed by diverse newspapers (see http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PfT0yVy4ERI online). The main results of the discussion were the following two declarations:
i. the three representatives of the Muslim associations agreed that the construction of a number of small mosques in each relevant neighbourhood is a preferable and more viable solution than the construction of a big mosque, that is likely to generate opposition and problems;
ii. the representative of the City Council (former vice-president of the local assembly) committed the current Council to grant the space and authorise the procedures for the construction of a mosque.
Unipmn organised a panel in the Biannual of Democracy, 13-17 April 2011, Turin. The Biannual of Democracy is an open forum of public discussions in which every two years journalists, politicians, public intellectuals, academics and many representatives from the civil society gather to discuss issues of public interest. 2011's theme was on the relation between majority and minorities. The panel on the RESPECT project, in which also a representative of the European Commission Directorate-general (DG) research participated (Simona Ardovino), attracted a good deal of discussion and was followed by a wide audience. http://biennaledemocrasia.it/2011/04/spasi-pubblici-tolleransa-e-rispetto-per-lintegrasione-delle-minoranse/ .
Finally, a number of articles in local and online journals were published. The full list of articles can be found here: http://respect.iusspavia.it/index.php?press
Project website: http://respect.iusspavia.it/