Periodic Reporting for period 1 - GREENEUROPE (Green Cops and ENGOs: Comparing the Regulation of Environmental Crime in Europe)
Okres sprawozdawczy: 2024-06-28 do 2026-06-27
With the rise of environmental concerns among citizens, European states have in recent years adopted an expanding body of legislation to combat environmental crime. This is because green crime is now recognized as one of the most lucrative forms of criminal activity, with severe impacts on the environment, human health, and local, national, and international economies and security. It is also perceived as linked to a wide range of other crimes (e.g. drug trafficking, money laundering).
Yet, despite a dense body of literature on green criminology, relatively little research has focused on the enforcement of existing laws by police officers. This is particularly surprising given the specificities of green policing. One of these is the involvement of an uncommon category of actors who rarely participate in the coercive aspects of policing: NGOs. While environmental NGOs (ENGOs) continue to engage in their traditional activities of campaigning and political lobbying to strengthen the fight against environmental crime, they also increasingly contribute to the effective enforcement of environmental law alongside conventional police forces, including on the ground (e.g. collecting evidence, testifying in court). Such strong involvement of non-state actors reflects both the complexity of investigating these crimes and the lack of specialized expertise among police officers, as acts of serious environmental damage have only recently been criminalized. It can also be explained by limited resources and/or the low prioritization of crimes whose victims are not always human or visible, and are often deemed secondary.
Against this background, this project seeks to explore the role of NGOs in green policing and the new process of socialization for police officers by analyzing how, and to what extent, police and NGOs work together to fight environmental crime in Europe. To achieve this, GREENEUROPE investigates: 1) Who are the ENGOs supporting green policing in Europe, and what are their roles? and 2) How do ENGOs and police officers cooperate in the fight against environmental crime? Based on these findings, GREENEUROPE aims at producing new analytical and theoretical insights into how and to what extent the policing role of non-state actors changes our understanding of the functions and capacities of European states.
To this end, the project relies on a comparison between four countries to build a stronger theorization of policing and public policy in Europe (Belgium, Denmark, France, and Spain). The European Union, as an additional venue for cooperation between ENGOs and police officers, is also examined — whether through various instruments (including project funding), the transformation of the legislative framework (including the adoption of the 2024 revised EU Directive on the Protection of the Environment through Criminal Law), or broader opportunities for meetings and exchanges between ENGOs and police representatives.
This project aims to produce innovative insights into effective green policing and into the relationships between police officers and ENGOs, disseminating them through publications and communications addressed to various academic audiences. Beyond its scientific contribution, GREENEUROPE places a strong emphasis on maximizing its societal impact through a range of dissemination channels designed to foster dialogue among diverse actors: law enforcement agencies, civil society through ENGOs, and policymakers interested in environmental crime. The project highlights existing practical difficulties faced by “green cops” while promoting innovative solutions to tackle environmental crime, notably through the involvement of ENGOs under specific conditions. In doing so, the fellowship contributes to a more effective enforcement of existing environmental legislation. GREENEUROPE also seeks to raise awareness of the specific challenges associated with combating environmental crime through lectures and outreach activities aimed at broad and diverse audiences (e.g. podcasts).
Yet, despite a dense body of literature on green criminology, relatively little research has focused on the enforcement of existing laws by police officers. This is particularly surprising given the specificities of green policing. One of these is the involvement of an uncommon category of actors who rarely participate in the coercive aspects of policing: NGOs. While environmental NGOs (ENGOs) continue to engage in their traditional activities of campaigning and political lobbying to strengthen the fight against environmental crime, they also increasingly contribute to the effective enforcement of environmental law alongside conventional police forces, including on the ground (e.g. collecting evidence, testifying in court). Such strong involvement of non-state actors reflects both the complexity of investigating these crimes and the lack of specialized expertise among police officers, as acts of serious environmental damage have only recently been criminalized. It can also be explained by limited resources and/or the low prioritization of crimes whose victims are not always human or visible, and are often deemed secondary.
Against this background, this project seeks to explore the role of NGOs in green policing and the new process of socialization for police officers by analyzing how, and to what extent, police and NGOs work together to fight environmental crime in Europe. To achieve this, GREENEUROPE investigates: 1) Who are the ENGOs supporting green policing in Europe, and what are their roles? and 2) How do ENGOs and police officers cooperate in the fight against environmental crime? Based on these findings, GREENEUROPE aims at producing new analytical and theoretical insights into how and to what extent the policing role of non-state actors changes our understanding of the functions and capacities of European states.
To this end, the project relies on a comparison between four countries to build a stronger theorization of policing and public policy in Europe (Belgium, Denmark, France, and Spain). The European Union, as an additional venue for cooperation between ENGOs and police officers, is also examined — whether through various instruments (including project funding), the transformation of the legislative framework (including the adoption of the 2024 revised EU Directive on the Protection of the Environment through Criminal Law), or broader opportunities for meetings and exchanges between ENGOs and police representatives.
This project aims to produce innovative insights into effective green policing and into the relationships between police officers and ENGOs, disseminating them through publications and communications addressed to various academic audiences. Beyond its scientific contribution, GREENEUROPE places a strong emphasis on maximizing its societal impact through a range of dissemination channels designed to foster dialogue among diverse actors: law enforcement agencies, civil society through ENGOs, and policymakers interested in environmental crime. The project highlights existing practical difficulties faced by “green cops” while promoting innovative solutions to tackle environmental crime, notably through the involvement of ENGOs under specific conditions. In doing so, the fellowship contributes to a more effective enforcement of existing environmental legislation. GREENEUROPE also seeks to raise awareness of the specific challenges associated with combating environmental crime through lectures and outreach activities aimed at broad and diverse audiences (e.g. podcasts).
During the fourteen months of the fellowship, I collected a substantial body of documentation on how ENGOs and law enforcement agencies interact in relation to environmental crime in France, Belgium, and Spain. I also conducted two interviews with Belgian police officers from the Federal Unit for Public Health and Environmental Crime (FUPHEC). In France, I gained access to the specialized environmental unit within the Gendarmerie nationale (Commandement pour l’Environnement et la Santé – CESAN), where I observed their activities for two weeks (e.g. participating in events they organized on drug trafficking and environmental crime, and attending their annual seminar for environmental deputy officers). I also conducted fifteen interviews with CESAN staff. During this fieldwork, I established contacts with key stakeholders in Spain (including the Servicio de Protección de la Naturaleza – SEPRONA) and Denmark in preparation for future fieldwork.
In addition, I collected documents and conducted interviews with officials from the European Commission (Directorates-General for Environment and for Justice and Consumers) and representatives of ENGOs (WWF Europe, IFAW) to obtain detailed insights into the preparation and negotiation of the 2024 revised EU Directive on the Protection of the Environment through Criminal Law, the positions of ENGOs and national officials, and the challenges faced during the legislative process and those expected in the upcoming transposition phase.
In addition, I collected documents and conducted interviews with officials from the European Commission (Directorates-General for Environment and for Justice and Consumers) and representatives of ENGOs (WWF Europe, IFAW) to obtain detailed insights into the preparation and negotiation of the 2024 revised EU Directive on the Protection of the Environment through Criminal Law, the positions of ENGOs and national officials, and the challenges faced during the legislative process and those expected in the upcoming transposition phase.
GREENEUROPE produced several key results:
1. It provided a detailed analysis of the identity of the ENGOs collaborating with law enforcement agencies. It demonstrated that not all ENGOs are equally involved in this type of cooperative relationship. For example, in France, the recent escalation of tensions and conflicts between environmental activists and law enforcement has led some ENGOs to support or at least refrain from explicitly condemning violent actions against police. This stance has excluded them from formal cooperation with law enforcement agencies, or at least has prevented the officialization of such cooperation, due to reputational concerns from the Gendarmerie nationale, which is cautious about its public image and its role as the embodiment of the French state.
2. It identified the wide range of ENGO activities related to environmental crime. ENGOs benefit from privileged access to the field and can report specific cases of environmental crime to law enforcement agencies thanks to their dense international networks, active online presence (which allows them to detect, for instance, wildlife trafficking on the Internet), and greater accessibility to citizens (as ENGOs are more visible and often more trusted than police). Their expertise is also critical for law enforcement agencies in several respects: providing training, offering legal expertise (e.g. to produce analyses of the legal framework or to jointly identify legislative reforms) and initiating legal proceedings on environmental offenses with police support. The expertise of some ENGOs in EU funding mechanisms has also proved crucial in preparing successful joint applications for EU-funded projects, benefiting from the ENGOs’ social and political legitimacy. Trust and mutual understanding are essential in these partnerships and depend strongly on interpersonal relationships established during meetings, events, or joint projects. In this regard, EU instruments — particularly EU fundings (such as LIFE Projects and Internal Security Funds) — play a critical role in fostering trust, improving perceptions of NGOs among practitioners, including of their potential contribution, and facilitating future collaboration.
3. It revealed significant cross-national variations in cooperation between ENGOs and law enforcement, explained by several key variables: the existence of specialised units; the broader environmental activists–police relations; the relation to European integration.
3. It provided insights into the contemporary transformation of European states. The first results of GREENEUROPE show that, faced with the crucial role played by ENGOs in a traditionally state prerogative, European states do not withdraw but remain in a supervisory role, selecting legitimate partners and defining the legal framework for their intervention. Thus, while they delegate certain functions to ENGOs and depend on their cooperation, European states retain their core responsibilities, and power asymmetries persist between ENGOs and law enforcement agencies. Moreover, the involvement of ENGOs indicates an expansion of state capacities, as states draw on new forms of expertise and resources where their own are limited. In this sense, European states, far from disappearing, are redefining themselves.
1. It provided a detailed analysis of the identity of the ENGOs collaborating with law enforcement agencies. It demonstrated that not all ENGOs are equally involved in this type of cooperative relationship. For example, in France, the recent escalation of tensions and conflicts between environmental activists and law enforcement has led some ENGOs to support or at least refrain from explicitly condemning violent actions against police. This stance has excluded them from formal cooperation with law enforcement agencies, or at least has prevented the officialization of such cooperation, due to reputational concerns from the Gendarmerie nationale, which is cautious about its public image and its role as the embodiment of the French state.
2. It identified the wide range of ENGO activities related to environmental crime. ENGOs benefit from privileged access to the field and can report specific cases of environmental crime to law enforcement agencies thanks to their dense international networks, active online presence (which allows them to detect, for instance, wildlife trafficking on the Internet), and greater accessibility to citizens (as ENGOs are more visible and often more trusted than police). Their expertise is also critical for law enforcement agencies in several respects: providing training, offering legal expertise (e.g. to produce analyses of the legal framework or to jointly identify legislative reforms) and initiating legal proceedings on environmental offenses with police support. The expertise of some ENGOs in EU funding mechanisms has also proved crucial in preparing successful joint applications for EU-funded projects, benefiting from the ENGOs’ social and political legitimacy. Trust and mutual understanding are essential in these partnerships and depend strongly on interpersonal relationships established during meetings, events, or joint projects. In this regard, EU instruments — particularly EU fundings (such as LIFE Projects and Internal Security Funds) — play a critical role in fostering trust, improving perceptions of NGOs among practitioners, including of their potential contribution, and facilitating future collaboration.
3. It revealed significant cross-national variations in cooperation between ENGOs and law enforcement, explained by several key variables: the existence of specialised units; the broader environmental activists–police relations; the relation to European integration.
3. It provided insights into the contemporary transformation of European states. The first results of GREENEUROPE show that, faced with the crucial role played by ENGOs in a traditionally state prerogative, European states do not withdraw but remain in a supervisory role, selecting legitimate partners and defining the legal framework for their intervention. Thus, while they delegate certain functions to ENGOs and depend on their cooperation, European states retain their core responsibilities, and power asymmetries persist between ENGOs and law enforcement agencies. Moreover, the involvement of ENGOs indicates an expansion of state capacities, as states draw on new forms of expertise and resources where their own are limited. In this sense, European states, far from disappearing, are redefining themselves.