This research explored the range and content of rebel integration provisions in peace agreements. The project adopted a mixed-methods approach by developing a data base of rebel inclusion provisions as well as conducting several in-depth case studies. The research starts from the observation that rebel integration provisions have become frequently used in peace accords. Yet, their record has been quite mixed and frequently criticized. Against this background, the researcher developed an analytical framework to investigate the content of rebel integration provisions over time and space. The main findings include that rebel integration provisions have to be adequately adapted to the local context. In addition, mediators have to think creatively about designing rebel inclusion mechanisms to create powerful incentives for rebels to demobilize, disarm and reintegrate.
The Arusha Peace Accords for Burundi in 2000. The Algiers Peace Agreement for Mali in 2015. The Revitalized Power-Sharing Agreement for South Sudan in 2020. And the list continues. Internationally-brokered peace agreements increasingly include a range of different provisions related to the integration of rebel groups. The last 30 years have seen the development of a rebel integration ‘toolkit’ designed to address conflict in divided societies. Yet, the prospects of success of these rebel integration arrangements are debated. While many policy-makers emphasise the importance of these measures for the successful conclusion of peace negotiations, researchers and practitioners increasingly point to their long-term adverse effects. Despite having been widely critiqued for rewarding violence and incentivizing further mobilization instead of demobilization, rebel integration provisions continue to prominently feature in peace negotiations and subsequent agreements.
Rebel integration arrangements come in various stripes. Conceptually, we can distinguish between three different approaches to rebel integration, including civilian [as reflected in Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR) programs], security [as illustrated in the incorporation of former combatants into security institutions, including most importantly the national army] as well as political integration provisions [as, for example, through the inclusion of rebel groups in the government or interim government or by legalizing rebel-to-party transformations]. These triple features are not exclusive, but indeed have become complementary approaches in international peacebuilding practice.
While some peace agreements include all three types of provisions, others incorporate one or two of these categories in different combinations. This raises important questions around the origins of these provisions, how different combinations have emerged and whether these variations constitute a response to local context. In addition, it begs the question why rebel integration provisions persist in peace agreements despite growing criticism concerning the prospects for their success. When did rebel integration provisions emerge? What decision-making processes determine the content and blend of rebel integration provisions? How has growing criticism towards these mechanisms been integrated into subsequent peace negotiations? This research project aimed to provide a scoping view of how rebel integration arrangements have emerged, evolved and been used in peace agreements across time and space. Unlike the existing literature, this research project did not primarily aim to study the effectiveness of rebel integration provisions but rather if and how conflict parties and international mediators have reacted to their growing criticism and how this has been integrated into subsequent negotiations. Overall, the research project found that the design of rebel integration provisions has lacked deep attention to local context. Instead, template provisions have been used without adapting them to the specific conflict environment. The research concluded with several recommendations for conflict resolution and mediation experts to better integrate context into rebel integration provisions and lessons learnt from past mediation attempts.
