Periodic Reporting for period 1 - GlaSpeRG (Blood in the theater: Gladiatorial and other associated spectacles in Roman and Late Antique Greece)
Okres sprawozdawczy: 2023-10-01 do 2025-09-30
GlaSpeRG was an analytical study focused on one of the most spectacular expressions of Roman public culture: gladiatorial games, beast hunts, and related spectacles. Using the territory of modern Greece as a case study, the project explored the introduction and development of these spectacles—novel to the Greek-speaking East—through the lens of urban and economic developments during the Roman period. This interdisciplinary and synthetic approach filled a significant gap in current scholarship regarding the diffusion of arena spectacles in the provinces of the Roman Empire, as acknowledged by numerous specialists in the field.
The project focused on three main objectives:
(a) to map the geographical and chronological distribution of gladiatorial and associated spectacles in Roman Greece and analyze the factors shaping these patterns;
(b) to identify the types of venues used for such events, especially the adaptation of pre-existing buildings (theatres and stadia) in contrast to purpose-built amphitheaters more common in the West; and
(c) to investigate the evolution of these performances in Late Antiquity and their relationship to the decline of traditional dramatic and athletic competitions.
The findings reveal that, out of approximately 283 officially recognized cities active in Roman Greece, only 27 are securely attested to have hosted gladiatorial or related spectacles, with an additional 4 considered possible cases. Nine cities adopted these events as early as the 1st century CE, while the majority did so during the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE—a time of increasing popularity of arena spectacles across the Eastern Mediterranean. These cities were not limited to Roman colonies or provincial capitals; some lacked formal legal or administrative status, but all demonstrated economic vitality and close ties to Roman authority. Their engagement with such spectacles suggests a level of ideological and cultural integration into the imperial system and illustrates how public entertainment functioned as a medium of elite power within the Roman “globalized” world.
Architectural evidence supports this pattern. Only a few cities—such as Corinth, Gortyn, and Knossos (all Roman colonies), and possibly Pella and Hierapytna—possessed amphitheaters. Major cities like Patras and Nikopolis held arena shows in newly built stadia with curved ends, structures that appear to have served as a localized equivalent of the Roman amphitheater. In smaller cities, existing theatres were adapted to accommodate arena performances. These architectural choices reflect regional adaptations and varying degrees of cultural assimilation.
In Late Antiquity (4th–5th centuries CE), some stadia—such as those in Athens and Messene—were transformed to resemble amphitheaters, likely to host beast hunts. However, firm evidence for gladiatorial combat in these modified venues is rare, with Thessaloniki being the only securely attested case. Other cities, like Philippi and Dodona, show signs of abandoning traditional drama as early as the late 3rd century CE, while in southern Greece, theatrical traditions persisted somewhat longer. Even there, though, structural changes—such as converting orchestras into water basins—suggest a shift towards aquatic shows and a broader transformation in public entertainment. By the 5th century CE, traditional theatrical genres appear to have largely disappeared.
The project focused on three main objectives:
(a) to map the geographical and chronological distribution of gladiatorial and associated spectacles in Roman Greece and analyze the factors shaping these patterns;
(b) to identify the types of venues used for such events, especially the adaptation of pre-existing buildings (theatres and stadia) in contrast to purpose-built amphitheaters more common in the West; and
(c) to investigate the evolution of these performances in Late Antiquity and their relationship to the decline of traditional dramatic and athletic competitions.
The findings reveal that, out of approximately 283 officially recognized cities active in Roman Greece, only 27 are securely attested to have hosted gladiatorial or related spectacles, with an additional 4 considered possible cases. Nine cities adopted these events as early as the 1st century CE, while the majority did so during the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE—a time of increasing popularity of arena spectacles across the Eastern Mediterranean. These cities were not limited to Roman colonies or provincial capitals; some lacked formal legal or administrative status, but all demonstrated economic vitality and close ties to Roman authority. Their engagement with such spectacles suggests a level of ideological and cultural integration into the imperial system and illustrates how public entertainment functioned as a medium of elite power within the Roman “globalized” world.
Architectural evidence supports this pattern. Only a few cities—such as Corinth, Gortyn, and Knossos (all Roman colonies), and possibly Pella and Hierapytna—possessed amphitheaters. Major cities like Patras and Nikopolis held arena shows in newly built stadia with curved ends, structures that appear to have served as a localized equivalent of the Roman amphitheater. In smaller cities, existing theatres were adapted to accommodate arena performances. These architectural choices reflect regional adaptations and varying degrees of cultural assimilation.
In Late Antiquity (4th–5th centuries CE), some stadia—such as those in Athens and Messene—were transformed to resemble amphitheaters, likely to host beast hunts. However, firm evidence for gladiatorial combat in these modified venues is rare, with Thessaloniki being the only securely attested case. Other cities, like Philippi and Dodona, show signs of abandoning traditional drama as early as the late 3rd century CE, while in southern Greece, theatrical traditions persisted somewhat longer. Even there, though, structural changes—such as converting orchestras into water basins—suggest a shift towards aquatic shows and a broader transformation in public entertainment. By the 5th century CE, traditional theatrical genres appear to have largely disappeared.
The research objectives were implemented through three distinct Work Packages:
- WP1 involved the creation of a catalogue of cities known to have hosted gladiatorial or related spectacles, based on published inscriptions (e.g. gladiator epitaphs, honorary inscriptions to sponsors) and archaeological evidence (e.g. architectural modifications to theatres). This list was compared to a second catalogue of all active Roman cities in the region.
- WP2 focused on documenting the spectacle venues, classifying them as either pre-Roman structures modified for Roman use or newly built Roman constructions.
- WP3 investigated the presence of arena shows in the Late Antique period and identified structural changes that signaled the end of traditional dramatic and athletic performances.
The results of GlaSpeRG were presented in four public lectures at the University of Cyprus:
- the 63rd Public Lecture Series of the Archaeological Research Unit (March 10, 2025),
- the Colloquium of the Interdepartmental Program in Byzantine Studies (October 23, 2024), and
- the Annual Conference of the Archaeological Research Unit (February 24, 2024, and March 8, 2025).
Two academic articles have been published (or are forthcoming):
- “The Gladiatorial Spectacles in Cyprus and the Enigma of the Amphitheater at Salamis”, American Journal of Archaeology 129.2 (2025), 181–202;
- (forthcoming) “St. Demetrius, the Gladiatorial Combats, and the Stadium of Thessaloniki”, Hesperia 95 (2026).
- A monograph titled Blood in the Theater: The Distribution of the Gladiatorial Spectacles in the Roman East is currently in preparation.
- WP1 involved the creation of a catalogue of cities known to have hosted gladiatorial or related spectacles, based on published inscriptions (e.g. gladiator epitaphs, honorary inscriptions to sponsors) and archaeological evidence (e.g. architectural modifications to theatres). This list was compared to a second catalogue of all active Roman cities in the region.
- WP2 focused on documenting the spectacle venues, classifying them as either pre-Roman structures modified for Roman use or newly built Roman constructions.
- WP3 investigated the presence of arena shows in the Late Antique period and identified structural changes that signaled the end of traditional dramatic and athletic performances.
The results of GlaSpeRG were presented in four public lectures at the University of Cyprus:
- the 63rd Public Lecture Series of the Archaeological Research Unit (March 10, 2025),
- the Colloquium of the Interdepartmental Program in Byzantine Studies (October 23, 2024), and
- the Annual Conference of the Archaeological Research Unit (February 24, 2024, and March 8, 2025).
Two academic articles have been published (or are forthcoming):
- “The Gladiatorial Spectacles in Cyprus and the Enigma of the Amphitheater at Salamis”, American Journal of Archaeology 129.2 (2025), 181–202;
- (forthcoming) “St. Demetrius, the Gladiatorial Combats, and the Stadium of Thessaloniki”, Hesperia 95 (2026).
- A monograph titled Blood in the Theater: The Distribution of the Gladiatorial Spectacles in the Roman East is currently in preparation.
GlaSpeRG contributes a critical reassessment of how gladiatorial spectacles are understood in the eastern provinces. Previous studies have often examined these phenomena in isolation, without connecting them to broader patterns of urban and cultural development. By contextualizing the diffusion of these spectacles within the dynamics of urban growth, the project offers a more nuanced understanding of why certain cities hosted arena shows while others did not. This analysis sheds light on the economic, political, and ideological functions of public spectacles and represents the project’s most substantial contribution beyond the existing state of the art.
Moreover, GlaSpeRG opens new directions for research into the reception and transformation of Roman spectacles in neighboring cultural spheres, such as the Sasanian and early Islamic worlds. Its exploration of the transitional period between pagan and Christian rule (3rd–6th centuries CE) provides fertile ground for understanding the long-term legacy of Roman performance culture in medieval and early modern societies.
Finally, the project plays a vital role in challenging modern stereotypes about Roman spectacles. Far from being mere violent amusements, these events embodied Roman ideals of valor, discipline, and the acceptance of death. As such, they served as both entertainment and moral spectacle—conveying values that continued to shape ethical thought and cultural narratives well beyond antiquity.
Moreover, GlaSpeRG opens new directions for research into the reception and transformation of Roman spectacles in neighboring cultural spheres, such as the Sasanian and early Islamic worlds. Its exploration of the transitional period between pagan and Christian rule (3rd–6th centuries CE) provides fertile ground for understanding the long-term legacy of Roman performance culture in medieval and early modern societies.
Finally, the project plays a vital role in challenging modern stereotypes about Roman spectacles. Far from being mere violent amusements, these events embodied Roman ideals of valor, discipline, and the acceptance of death. As such, they served as both entertainment and moral spectacle—conveying values that continued to shape ethical thought and cultural narratives well beyond antiquity.